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JNIVERSITY   OF  KANSAS, 
LAWRENCE:  v 


BULLETIN 

OF  THE 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


ALFALFA,  GRASSHOPPERS,  BEES: 

THEIR  RELATIONSHIP. 


BY 


S.  J.  HUNTER. 


DIVERSITY   OF   KANSAS, 

LAWRENCE 


Compliments  of 


UNIVERSITY  OF/  KANSAS, 
LAWRENi 


ALFALFA,  GRASSHOPPERS,  BEES: 

THEIR  RELATIONSHIP. 


A  REPORT   OF   THE   FIELD-WORK  OF  THE 

DEPARTMENT  OF   ENTOMOLOGY, 

SUMMER  OF  1898. 


Contribution  from  Entomological  Laboratory, 

No.  65. 

By    S.  J    HUNTER. 


PRESS  OF  THE  STATE  PRINTER: 

TOPEKA,  KA.NSAS. 

JANUARY  1899. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  ENTOMOLOGY, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  KANSAS. 


F.  H.  SNOW,  PH.  D., 
PROFESSOR. 

S.  J.  HUNTER,  A.  M., 
ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR. 

HUGO  KAHL, 
CURATOR  AND  SYSTEMATIC  ENTOMOLOGIST. 

MISS  ELLA  WEEKS, 
ARTIST. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Acknowledgments xi 

Preface 1 

PART  I. — ALFALFA  AND  GRASSHOPPERS. 

Introduction 5 

Grasshoppers  in  General 9 

Native  Grasshoppers  in  Kansas 11 

Edwards  county ' 12 

Ford  county 13 

Finney  county 13 

Hamilton  county 14 

Greeley  county 15 

Wallace  county 16 

Logan  county 16 

Thomas  county 16 

Sherman  county 16 

Decatur  county    18 

Norton  county 18 

Species  of  Grasshoppers  Prevalent 19 

Life-History  of  the  Differential  Locust 20 

Embryology 20 

Description  of  the  egg 20 

Method  of  oviposition 21 

Where  the  eggs  are  laid 23 

Molting 27 

Habits 28 

Food 28 

Actions 28 

Borders  of  the  field  stripped 28 

Length  of  flight 29 

Habitat 29 

Natural  enemies 29 

Vertebrate 29 

Birds 30 

Blacksnakes 30 

Invertebrate 31 

Locust  mite 31 

Beetles 31 

Flies 31 

Parasitic  influences  on  Melanoplus 32 

Sarcophaga  cimbicis 33 

Sarcophaga  hunteri 34 

Locust  fungus 37 

Observations  upon  the  Differential  Locust  made  in  widely  separated 

localities '. . .' 38 

593578 


VI  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

Grasshoppers  in  General — Continued: 

Anatomy  of  the  Differential  Locust 39 

External  anatomy 39 

The  head 40 

The  thorax 41 

Appendages  of  the  thorax 42 

The  abdomen 43 

Internal  anatomy 44 

Digestive  system 44 

Circulatory  system 45 

Respiratory  system 46 

Reproductive  system 47 

Nervous  system 47 

Measures  of  Prevention 48 

Alfalfa  culture 51 

The  Hopper-Dozer 55 

Spraying 60 

Summary 60 

Grasshopper  Law 61 

Bibliography  of  Differential  Locust 62 

Technical  description  of  the  Differential  Locust 63 

PART  II.— ALFALFA  AND  BEES. 

Introduction 67 

Varieties  of  Bees 68 

German 69- 

Carniolan 691 

Italian 71 

Cyprian " 71 

Social  Economy  of  the  Hive 72 

The  queen 72 

The  drone 73 

The  worker 13- 

Bee  Products 74 

Bee-bread • 74 

Propolis , 74 

Royal  jelly 74 

Silk 75 

Wax 75 

Honey 75 

Analyses  of  various  kinds  of  honey 791 

Comb  building 79 

The  sting 80 

Method  of  fertilization  of  the  alfalfa  blossom 81 

Influence  of  bees  upon  the  seed  crop 82 

Comparative  tables 84 

Alfalfa  as  a  honey  plant 84 

Comparative  tables  showing  alfalfa  acreage,  stands  of  bees,  pounds  of 

honey 86 

Observations  gathered  from  Kansas  Apiarists 88- 

Some  hive  yields 9ft 

Record  of  colony  of  bees  feeding  for  the  year  almost  exclusively  upon  alfalfa,  100 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  Vll 

One  Year  Among  the  Bees 102 

What  constitutes  a  colony  of  bees 102 

Early  spring  management 103 

Stimulative  feeding 105 

The  bee  veil  and  smoker 106 

The  honey  season 107 

Hives  and  appliances 109 

The  Parker  foundation  fastener Ill 

Super  for  holding  the  sections 112 

The  section-holder  super 113 

Section  boxes,  shipping  crates,  etc 114 

Hives  complete 114 

The  extractor 116 

Extracting  honey 118 

Hiving  swarms 119 

Putting  hives  together 121 

Queen-cells  and  queen  rearing 122 

Frames  of  comb  foundation 124 

Feeding  bees 125 

House  apiaries 126 

Opening  hives  and  handling  bees 129 

Reversing  the  comb 131 

Close  of  the  honey  season 131 

Cellar  wintering 133 

Chaff  hives  and  outdoor  wintering 134 

Chaff  hive  complete 135 

Colony  of  bees  ready  for  shipment 135 

Introducing  queens 136 

Winter  care  of  bees 137 

Dividing  bees  for  increase 137 

Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Bees 139 

Foul-brood 139 

The  wax  moth 141 

Ants,  wasps,  spiders 141 

Principal  Honey-  and  Pollen-Producing  Plants  of  Kansas 142 

Books  and  Journals  relating  to  Apiculture 144 


Vlll  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PLATES   IN    PART   I.  PAGE, 

I.     Second  crop  of  alfalfa  on  land  disked  the  previous  March. .  .Frontispiece. 
II.     Melanoplus  differentialis,  female  ovipositing,  with  section  of  ground 

exposing  egg-pods,  in  situ 22 

III.  Egg-pods  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 24 

IV.  Various  stages  of  last  molt  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 26 

V.     First  crop  of  alfalfa  on  land  disked  the  previous  March 50 

VI.     First  crop  of  alfalfa  on  land  disked  the  previous  March  ( in  windrow 

and  swath ) 54 

VII.     Hopper-dozer  at  work  in  alfalfa 56 

VIII.     Hopper-dozer  at  work  in  Kafir  corn : 58 

FIGURES   IN    PART   I. 

1.  Melanoplus  differentialis,  female 19 

2.  Melanoplus  differentialis,  male  19 

3.  Eggs  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 20 

4.  Irregular  hexagonal  pattern  of  the  chorion  of  egg  of  Melanoplus  dif- 

ferentialis    21 

5.  Locust  mite,  Trombidium  locustarum,  on  membrane  of  locust  wing.. .  31 

6.  Different  stages  in  the  metamorphosis  of  Sarcophagidae 33 

7.  Sarcophaga  cimbicis,  female 34 

8.  Sarcophaga  hunteri,  male 34 

9.  Thorax  of  Sarcophaga  hunteri 36 

10.  Erax  cinerascens 37 

11.  Melanoplus  differentialis  killed  by  fungus 38 

12.  Front  view  of  head  of  Melanoplus  differentialis  with  clypeus  and  la- 

brum  removed 40 

13.  Front  view  of  head  of  Melanoplus  differentialis  with  mandibles 

spread  out 40 

14.  Labium  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 41 

15.  Inner  view  of  maxilla  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 41 

16.  Clypeus  and  labrum  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 40 

16£.  Side  view  of  prothorax  with  leg  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 41 

17.  Side  view  of  thorax  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 41 

18.  Metathoracic  leg  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 42 

19.  Dorsal  aspect  of  body  of  female  Melanoplus  differentialis :.  43 

20.  Ventral  view  of  thorax  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 44 

21.  Side  view  of  abdomen  of  female  Melanoplus  differentialis 44 

22.  Side  view  of  abdomen  of  male  Melanoplus  differentialis 44 

23.  Dorsal  view  of  caudal  appendages  of  male  Melanoplus  differentialis,  44 

24.  Exterior  view  of  auditory  organ  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 45 

25.  Digestive,  circulatory  and  nervous  systems  of  Melanoplus  differen- 

tialis   45 

26.  Respiratory  system  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 46 

27.  Side  view,  showing  spiracles  of  mesothorax  of  Melanoplus  differen- 

tialis    47 

28.  Reproductive  system  of  female  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 47 

29.  Plan  of  construction  of  hopper-dozer 57 

30.  View  in  front  of  hopper-dozer,  showing  quantities  of  grasshoppers  just 

taken  from  the  pans 59 


\ 

ILLUSTRATIONS.  ix 

PLATES   IN   PART  II. 

I.     Some  Kansas  Apiaries Frontispiece. 

II.     Varieties  of  bees 70 

III.  Digestive  system  of  bee 76 

IV.  Shades  of  color  in  various  kinds  of  honey 78 

FIGURES   IN    PART   II. 

1.  Secretion  of  wax  scales 75 

2.  The  sting  of  the  worker  bee  and  its  appendages. 80 

3.  Pollination  of  alfalfa  blossom  by  bee 81 

4.  Cluster  of  alfalfa  with  bee  feeding S3- 

5.  Honey-bee  on  alfalfa  .... 90 

6.  Honey-bee  on  white  clover 93 

7.  Honey-bee  on  sweet  clover 96- 

8.  Bee  veil  and  smoker 107 

9.  Hives  and  appliances  for  honey  production 1091 

10.  Parker  foundation  fastener Ill 

11.  Super  for  holding  the  sections   113- 

12.  Section-holder  super 114 

13.  Section  boxes,  shipping  crate,  etc 115 

14.  Hives  complete 115 

15.  Extractor  with  inside  gearing  raised  and  exposed  to  view 117 

16.  Extracting  honey 118 

17.  Hiving  swarms 120 

18.  Putting  hives  together 122 

19.  Queen-cells  and  queen  rearing 123 

20.  Frames  of  comb  foundation 125 

21.  Feeding  bees 126 

22.  House  apiaries 127 

23.  Opening  hives  and  handling  bees 130 

24.  Reversing  the  comb 131 

25.  Outside  view  of  house  apiary 132 

26.  Cellar  wintering 133 

27.  Chaff  hives  and  outdoor  wintering 134 

28.  Chaff  hive  complete 135 

29.  Colony  of  bees  ready  for  shipment 136- 


ACKOWLEDGMENTS. 


Referring  to  Part  I,  my  thanks  are  due  Mr.  C.  E.  McClung,  of  the 
Department  of  Zoology,  for  the  sketch  from  which  figure  4  was  made 
and  for  the  paragraphs  upon  the  egg  of  Melanoplus  differ entialis. 
Plates  I,  V,  VI,  VIII  and  figure  1  are  from  photographs  taken  by  the 
author  for  this  publication.  Plate  VII  and  figure  30  are  produced 
from  photographs  by  Mr.  Earl  Cass,  under  direction.  Figures  2  and 
3  are  from  photographs  made  to  be  here  used  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Marcy. 
Figure  11  is  from  a  photograph  taken  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Tucker  in  this 
laboratory.  All  the  other  plates  and  figures  are  produced  from  original 
drawings  made  by  Miss  Ella  Weeks,  under  the  author's  direction.  In 
the  execution  of  this  work  the  zeal  and  fidelity  of  the  artist  is  worthy 
of  special  mention. 

In  will  be  noted  from  the  above  that  all  the  illustrations  in  Part  I, 
both  text  and  plate,  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  this  volume 
from  original  subject-matter. 

Referring  to  Part  II,  I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  W.  C.  Stevens,  of  the 
Department  of  Botany,  for  directing  the  work  of  the  artist,  Miss  Weeks, 
in  the  preparation  of  figures  3  and  4,  and  for  the  use  of  the  photo- 
graph, taken  by  himself,  from  which  figure  7  was  made.  Plate  I  is 
made  from  four  photographs.  Plate  II  is  produced  from  original 
drawings  made  by  Miss  Weeks,  under  direction.  Plate  III  is  from  a 
drawing  made  after  Cheshire.  Plate  IV — figures  5  and  6  are  from 
photographs  made  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Marcy,  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  the  author.  Figures  1  and  2  show  in  the  explanations  where  taken 
from ;  they  were  kindly  loaned  by  Chas.  Dadant  &  Son.  Figures  8  to 
29,  inclusive,  are  from  photographs  taken  under  the  author's  direction 
and  with  the  cooperation  of  Mr.  A.  H.  Duff.  There  should  have  ap- 
peared in  the  explanation  after  each  figure  the  word  "(Original)." 

With  the  exception  of  plate  III  and  figures  1  and  2,  the  illustrations 
were  especially  prepared  for  this  publication  from  original  drawings 

and  photographs. 

(xi) 


PREFACE. 


1 F  the  products  of  the  season's  labor  are  damaged  by  an  insect  foe, 
the  cause  of  its  appearance  can  be  ascertained  and  means  of  pre- 
vention made  prominent  factors  in  subsequent  calculations.  While 
the  insect  tribe  contains  some  foes,  it  has  among  its  members  many 
insect  friends.  The  grain  producer  and  fruit-grower  will  do  well  to 
cultivate  their  acquaintance. 

It  is  with  the  desire  that  intelligent  action  may  be  directed  against 
one  of  our  aggressive  herbiverous  insects,  and  a  more  intimate  ac- 
quaintance formed  with  our  melliferous  insect  friend,  that  this  publi- 
cation is  sent  forth.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  former  insect 
when  properly  dealt  with  proves  a  blessing  in  disguise.  The  latter 
calls  upon  the  alfalfa  blossom  for  its  nectar  to  enrich  our  table,  and 
by  its  visit  increases  the  seed  crop  twofold. 

It  is  expected  that  experiments  begun  one  year  ago  and  continued 
this  summer  will  be  carried  on  during  the  coming  season,  and  infor- 
mation upon  operation  and  results  will  be  given  at  a  later  date  to 
those  interested. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  am  indebted  to  Chancellor  F.  H. 
SNOW  and  Dr.  S.  W.  WILLISTON  for  valuable  suggestions. 

Daring  the  field-work,  a  report  of  which  this  is,  an  expression  of 
my  appreciation  is  due  Supts.  Gr.  W.  WATSON  and  J.  H.  SMART,  of 
the  firm  of  BALL  &  GODDARD,  Kinsley,  and  Co.  Treas.  C.  H.  HUM- 
PHREY and  Hon.  THOMAS  H.  FORD,  of  Syracuse,  for  valuable  assistance. 

In  behalf  of  this  department,  grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to 
the  Atchison.  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific, 
Union  Pacific  and  Missouri  Pacific  Railway  Companies  for  material 
cooperation. 


PART  I. 
ALFALFA  AND  GRASSHOPPERS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


fTHE  culture  of  alfalfa  has  reached  such  proportions  in  Kansas 
that  those  directly  interested  are  devoting  their  energies  toward 
making  the  returns  as  large  as  possible.  Farmers  in  some  parts  of 
this  state  are  counting  their  alfalfa  fields  by  the  section  plats. 
Whenever  such  areas  are  devoted  to  one  particular  plant  the  course 
of  natural  events  is  changed.  Nature  intends  that  there  shall  be  an 
equal  distribution  of  plant  life  and  animal  life.  Wherever  one  plant 
predominates  those  forms  of  animal  life  which  thrive  best  upon  it  as 
a  food-plant  increase  in  undue  proportion.  This  has  been  the  case 
with  the  chinch-bug  and  wheat,  the  corn-root  worm  and  corn ;  each 
have  thriven  amidst  superabundance  of  their  favorite  food-plant. 

That  the  relation  between  alfalfa  and  insect  life  might  be  more 
fully  understood,  the  writer  was  called  upon  to  visit  Edwards  county 
last  fall.  He  then  made  note  of  the  conditions,  and  published,  in 
connection  with  Professor  SnowT,  a  report  giving  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion that  would  eliminate  objectionable  insects  from  alfalfa  lands. 
He  was  asked  to  continue  these  studies  at  the  beginning  of  this 
year  again,  and,  with  the  proffered  cooperation  of  those  interested, 
to  conduct  such  investigations  and  experiments  as  he  saw  fit  in  the 
alfalfa  regions.  In  acceptance  of  that  request,  believing  that  the  best- 
laboratory  was  the  field,  the  writer  went  into  camp  fifteen  miles 
southwest  of  Kinsley,  on  the  line  between  Edwards  and  Ford  counties, 
with  tent  and  full  laboratory  equipments,  prepared  to  study  the 
entomological  conditions  of  that  region  with  special  reference  to  the 
alfalfa  plant. 

My  first  work  might  be  termed  a  general  survey  of  the  territory 
adjoining  the  camp.  Accordingly,  in  company  with  Supt.  J.  H. 
Smart,  I  drove  over  the  alfalfa-producing  region  of  Edwards  and  Ford 
counties,  and  obtained  a  general  knowledge  of  the  situation.  I  was 
soon  struck  with  the  prevalence  of  one  species  of  grasshopper,  and 
also  the  possibilities  of  bee-keeping  in  this  region,  an  injurious  and  a 
beneficial  phase  of  entomological  research.  To  these  two  subjects  I 
determined  to  devote  my  undivided  attention,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others. 

While  at  work  here  invitations  came  to  visit  Finney  and  Hamilton 
counties,  where  grasshoppers  were  making  inroads  upon  the  growing 

(5) 


6  •:  \4;      .  •/ 

crops.  Ac^OiSdSi^^ty^OpJ  thtf'ldtii  of  July  I  reached  Syracuse,  in 
Hamilton  county,  and  visited  agricultural  regions  where  grasshoppers 
were  at  work.  Upon  the  20th  and  21st  I  investigated  affected  fields 
on  the  north,  east  and  west  of  Garden  City.  I  returned  to  my  camp 
upon  the  22d.  Being  convinced  that  the  damage  by  the  grasshop- 
pers was  due  to  the  prevalence  of  one  species,  I  concluded  to  devote 
my  attention  to  the  life-history  and  habits  of  this  one.  Accordingly, 
observations  were  largely  confined  to  this  one  species.  The  camp 
was  maintained  in  Edwards  county  until  this  form  had  reached  the 
adult  stage,  when,  having  already  received  reports  of  flights  of  grass- 
hoppers on  the  western  line  of  the  state,  and  also  of  the  prevalence 
of  grasshoppers  in  certain  localities,  I  determined  to  make  a  survey 
of  all  this  region,  to  ascertain  the  numbers  present  and  causes  govern- 
ing their  presence,  and  also  to  visit  the  beekeepers  of  this  region  and 
make  such  observations  upon  the  actions  of  their  bees  toward  alfalfa 
as  might  seem  practicable. 

Accordingly  I  left  camp  for  Syracuse,  and  from  Syracuse  by  team 
drove  north  through  Hamilton,  Greeley  and  Wallace  counties  to  Sharon 
Springs;  from  Sharon  Springs  by  rail  to  Oakley,  where  conditions 
were  noted,  and  from  Oakley  by  slow  train  to  Colby.  Conditions 
were  again  noted  from  Colby  to  Goodland.  Reports  had  reached  me 
from  this  point  of  the  prevalence  of  grasshoppers  on  the  tracks. 
Here,  I  made  special  examinations  of  the  cow-catchers  of  engines 
entering  the  roundhouse  to  ascertain  the  species  of  grasshoppers 
caught  along  the  track.  Upon  leaving  Goodland  I  was  given  the  op- 
portunity to  occupy  a  favorable  position  where  flights  of  grasshop- 
pers rising  in  front  of  the  engine  could  be  easily  noted.  This 
observation  was  continued  as  far  as  Norton.  At  Norton,  the  agri- 
cultural regions  were  visited,  and  the  existing  state  of  affairs  noted. 
This  survey  covered  eleven  of  the  twenty-four  counties  west  of  the 
100th  meridian,  and  two  east  of  this  meridian. 

The  pages  which  follow  contain  the  practical  results  of  the  obser- 
vations made,  extending  over  a  period  from  July  5  to  September  4, 
as  well  as  a  fully  illustrated  summary  of  the  experiments  conducted 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  farmers  during  the  past  year.  The  hearty 
manner  with  which  all  interested  have  entered  into  this  work,  and  the 
many  opinions  expressed  concerning  the  favorable  results,  cause  me 
to  believe  that  the  work  has  not  been  in  vain.  Since  my  return 
numerous  inquiries  have  been  received,  examples  of  which  are  here- 
with given : 

VERA,  KAN.,  August  27,  1898. 

MY  DEAR  SIR:  I  read  with  much  interest  the  article  in  the  Kansas  City  Star 
of  August  19,  1898,  about  your  experimenting  with  alfalfa  by  disk  harrowing, 
etc.  I  have  quite  an  acreage  of  alfalfa  that  has  not  done  very  well  this  year  ow- 
ing to  the  wet  weather,  with  perhaps  other  causes,  and  the  crab-grass  and  sand- 


INTRODUCTION.  4 

burs  have  come  in  badly.  I  would  like  the  benefit  of  your  experience  as  to  what 
is  best  to  do:  but  let  me  state  first,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  alfalfa  on  the  field. 
Xow  please  advise  me  whether  it  is  best  to  plow  up  the  field  this  fall  and  sow  in 
the  spring,  or  wait  until  spring  and  rake  off  all  the  dead  crab-grass,  etc.,  and 
disk  harrow  the  fields,  sowing  where  it  is  needed,  or,  after  the  heavy  frosts  of 
October,  this  year,  will  it  be  advisable  to  burn  off  the  crab-grass  ?  If  that  were 
done  the  alfalfa  left  might  winter-kill.  Is  there  any  probability  that  the  disk 
harrow  will  cut  the  crown  off  the  alfalfa  and  kill  it ;  did  it  kill  any  in  your  ex- 
periments ?  Would  it  be  advisable  to  disk  harrow  the  ground  in  June  after  the 
first  crop  has  been  cut  off  ?  How  much  of  an  angle  do  you  set  the  wheels  of  the 
harrow  when  doing  the  work  ?  If  you  will  kindly  give  me  the  benefit  of  your  ex- 
perience in  the  matter,  you  will  greatly  oblige  me.  Very  truly  yours, 

ALBERT  F.  THAYER. 

LEROY,  KAN.,  October  21, 1898. 

DEAR  SIR  :  I  notice  in  the  Capital  that  you  advise  farmers  to  disk  and  cross- 
disk  alfalfa  fields  to  rid  them  of  grasshoppers.  I  have  four  small  fields  of  alfalfa, 
sown  in  1895, 1896,  1897,  and  1898:  the  grasshoppers  are  stripping  them  in  spots. 
I  am  afraid  to  use  the  disk  without  some  instructions.  Is  there  any  danger  of 
setting  a  sharp  disk  at  such  an  angle  as  to  cut  off  the  alfalfa  roots  and  kill  the 
plant,  or  is  there  any  danger  of  disking  too  deep  ?  Hoping  you  will  be  kind 
enough  to  give  me  some  light  on  this  subject,  I  am, 

Very  truly  yours,  JOHN  H.  SILSBY. 

P.  S.— How  old  must  the  plants  be  before  it  is  safe  to  use  the  disk  on  them  ? 

ST.  JOSEPH,  Mo. 

DEAR  SIR:  I  have  over  500  acres  in  alfalfa  [in  Norton  county,  Kansas,]  and 
intend  raising  that  number  of  acres  as  soon  as  I  get  the  ground  in  order.  Some 
of  this  alfalfa  is  over  six  years  old  and  some  was  put  out  as  late  as  last  spring.  I 
believe  that  the  oldest  of  my  alfalfa  yields  the  most,  and  I  think  that  it  takes  at 
least  three  years  before  a  full  crop  can  be  harvested.  The  grasshoppers  favor  al- 
falfa fields  on  account  of  the  tenderness  of  the  plant,  which  grows  so  fast  during 
the  season.  They  certainly  prefer  alfalfa  to  corn  and  other  cereals,  and  only 
leave  alfalfa  fields  when  they  are  destroyed,  and  then  take  to  the  corn-fields  or 
whatever  other  cereals  adjoin  the  alfalfa  fields.  I  believe  the  conditions  concern- 
ing alfalfa  appear  to  be  conducive  to  the  multiplication  of  grasshoppers,  as  they 
generally  lay  their  eggs  there  before  leaving.  I  would  like  to  have  you  advise  me 
what  headway  has  been  made  toward  destroying  the  pest  when  it  is  small,  and  if 
you  know  any  implement  or  tool  made  for  that  purpose,  or  have  any  idea  to  pre- 
sent, I  will  gladly  receive  it,  as  I  am  anxious  to  save  the  second  and  third  crops  of 
alfalfa.  They  do  not  bother  the  first  crop,  as  it  is  generally  ready  to  cut  before 
the  grasshoppers  do  any  damage.  Kindly  let  me  hear  from  you  at  your  earliest 
convenience,  and  oblige,  Yours  truly,  A.  J.  BRUNSWIG. 

That  these  and  many  other  letters  might  be  clearly  answered,  and 
those  concerned  be  informed  more  fully  upon  benefits  not  yet  enjoyed 
from  alfalfa,  this  publication  is  sent  forth. 

It  has  been  deemed  convenient  and  wise  to  present  the  subject  in 
two  parts ;  the  first  will  treat  of  alfalfa  and  grasshoppers,  the  second 
of  alfalfa  and  bees.  It  is  highly  gratifying  to  state  that  the  conclu- 
sions of  Part  I  show  that  the  best  methods  of  alfalfa  culture  are  those 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

which  are  the  most  conducive  to  the  prevention  of  grasshoppers,  and 
that  the  deductions  of  Part  II  show  that  while  alfalfa  is  one  of  the 
first  of  our  forage  plants,  its  choicest  product  is  not  to  be  found  in 
the  hay-rack,  but  upon  the  farmer's  table,  carried  thither  by  the 

busy  bee. 

S.  J.  H. 
JANUARY  9,  1899. 


GRASSHOPPERS  IN  GENERAL. 


TN  the  minds  of  some  there  exists  an  opinion  that  among  states 
Kansas  alone  has  suffered  most,  is  most  subject  to  injury  from 
grasshoppers,  that  these  grasshoppers  are  migratory,  that  there  is  no 
means  of  checking  them  —  hence,  they  are  a  necessary  evil,  and  the 
less  said  about  them  the  better. 

For  the  benefit  of  such,  as  well  as  for  general  information,  it  may 
be  well  to  give  the  situation  as  it  is.  Since  the  Rocky  Mountain  Lo- 
cust is  the  most  renowned,  we  have,  placed  in  brief  form,  as  taken 
from  Riley,  Bruner,  Packard,  and  others,  the  data  following,  showing 
number  of  annual  visitations  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  has  made, 
and  the  states  which  these  locusts  visited.  These  insects  doubt- 
less occurred  frequently  prior  to  dates  given,  but  no  records  were 
retained,  since  these  regions  were  at  that  time  uninhabited  by  record- 
keeping  people.  The  record  from  1866  is  full;  the  completeness  of 
the  record  from  1866  is  due,  not  necessarily  to  greater  prevalence  of 
the  locust,  but  to  better  facilities  for  securing  such  data. 

I  have  placed  after  each  state  here  named  the  number  of  annual 
appearances  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  within  the  twenty-eight 
years  between  1851  and  1878.  Before  1851  we  have  no  authentic 
records,  and  since  1878  this  locust  has  committed  little  damage  in  this 
state.  For  this  reason  this  period  has  been  chosen. 

Number  of  annual  visitations  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  to 
states  named,  during  the  period  1851-1878 : 

Arkansas,  2.  Kansas,  14.  New  Mexico,  3. 

British  N.  America,  10.  Minnesota,  18.  Texas,  15. 

Colorado,  12.  Missouri,  8.  Utah,  26. 

Dakota,  17.  Montana,  18.  Washington,  \  , 

Idaho,  5.  Nebraska,  13.  Oregon,  \    ' 

Indian  Territory,  5.  Nevada,  4.  Wyoming,  10. 
Iowa,  15. 

While  Kansas  has  been  free  from  the  attacks  of  these  insects  since 
1878,  it  has  not  been  so  with  some  of  the  other  states  named,  notably 
Minnesota,  where,  in  1891,  the  crops  of  several  counties  were  com- 
pletely taken  by  this  locust.  From  a  glance  at  the  list,  it  can  be  seen 
that,  up  to  1878,  seven  states  had  a  greater  number  of  visitations  from 
this  locust  than  Kansas.  Further,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  there 
were  only  three  seasons  in  Kansas  when  this  grasshopper's  damages 

(9) 


10  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

were  severe  or  general.  To  these  facts  add  the  statement  that  other 
states  have  been  visited  since  the  migratory  grasshoppers  made  their 
last  pilgrimage  to  Kansas,  and  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  Kansas  by  no 
means  stands  first  nor  second,  but  stands  eighth  in  rank  as  host  for 
this  far-famed  locust. 

This  list  does  not  take  into  account  the  presence  of  native  grass- 
hoppers. These  have  made  their  appearance  at  times  in  destructive 
numbers  in  all  of  the  territory  named  in  this  table.  -Not  only  over 
this  western  territory,  but  the  New  England  states  as  well  have  suf- 
fered from  the  voracious  appetites  of  resident  locusts.  Grasshoppers 
are  spoken  of  historically  in  the  East;  they  can  be  made  "past  tenses" 
in  Kansas.  The  purpose  of  this  article  is  not  to  treat  of  the  migra- 
tory locusts,  but  those  which  nourish  and  die  in  the  vicinity  of  their 
birthplace. 

Grasshoppers  belong  to  the  order  of  insects  known  as  Orthoptera, 
or  straight-winged  insects,  such  as  the  cricket,  katydid,  and  praying 
horse.  This  order  is  divided  into  several  families,  of  which  the  Ac- 
rididse  or  grasshoppers  form  one.  Since  the  subdivisions  or  subfami- 
lies are  classed  according  to  habits  as  well  as  structure,  it  might  be 
well  to  mention  them  briefly,  so  that  the  casual  observer  may  know 
from  the  insect  in  hand  whether  or  not  it  is  a  highly  injurious  form. 

One  group,  found  more  generally  in  low  and  marshy  land,  is  char- 
acterized by  a  very  receding  front,  forming  a  sharp  angle  at  vertex  of 
the  head.  This  subfamily,  Tryxalince,  is  not  abundant  enough  to 
cause  serious  damage. 

Common  along  the  sides  of  roads  and  field  is  a  dusky  grasshopper, 
showing  as  it  flies  a  dark  hind  wing  with  white  bordor.  Frequently 
it  pauses  in  the  air,  flitting  its  wings  before  alighting.  This  is  the 
Carolina  Locust  (Dissosteira  Carolina),  or  "dust-hopper,"  so  called 
from  its  fondness  for  roadsides  and  dusty  places.  This  familiar  insect 
belongs  to  the  subfamily  (Edipodince,  a  group  characterized  by  rough 
prominent  ridge  on  crest  of  prothorax,  the  hood-shaped  part  immedi- 
ately behind  the  head.  While  these  are  injurious  at  times,  they  do 
not,  in  this  country,  possess  migratory  instinct  to  any  great  extent. 

The  next  group,  the  Acridiincv,  contains  our  most  injurious  forms. 
The  prothorax  is  usually  smooth  on  top,  the  breast  between  front  legs 
usually  extended  into  a  tubercle.  To  this  group  belong  those  grass- 
hoppers that  migrate,  and  those  that  thrive  well  on  cultivated  crops 
in  the  locality  of  birth. 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL.  11 


NATIVE  GRASSHOPPERS  IN  KANSAS. 

The  native  grasshopper  lias  made  himself  felt  in  Kansas,  and  is  lia- 
ble to  do  so  again  unless  he  becomes  the  subject  of  intelligent  attack. 
In  a  trip  for  observation,  Professor  Osborne,  in  1891,  reported  these 
grasshoppers  as  causing  considerable  damage  to  crops  along  the  Ar- 
kansas valley,  in  the  western  part  of  this  state.  Since  that  time  larger 
areas  of  cultivated  ground  have  furnished  more  food  and  the  possi- 
bility of  a  greater  production  of  resident  locusts.  This  matter  was 
brought  directly  to  the  notice  of  the  writer,  by  letters  received  in  Au- 
gust and  September,  1897,  from  Supt.  Geo.  W.  Watson,  of  the  land 
department  of  the  Alfalfa,  Irrigation  and  Land  Company,  Kinsley, 
Kan.  These  letters  were  referred  to  us  by  Mr.  F.  D.  Coburn,  secretary 
state  board  of  agriculture.  From  the  nature  of  this  correspondence, 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  visit  that  locality,  to  obtain,  in  detail,  ex- 
isting conditions.  Upon  returning,  a  report  was  issued,  by  Professor 
Snow  and  myself,  an  extract  from  which  I  herewith  give,  to  show  the 
state  of  affairs : 

On  the  morning  of  the  30th,  Mr.  R.  E.  Edwards,  president  of  the  Kinsley 
Bank,  took  us  to  a  large  tract  of  alfalfa  southwest  of  Kinsley.  There  are  about 
400  acres  of  alfalfa  in  this  piece,  all  the  property  of  Mr.  Edwards.  Here  we 
found  a  few  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,*  but  many  more  of  what  is  known  as 
the  Differential  Locust,  or  Melanoplus  different! alls.  The  farmers  speak 
of  them  as  "those  big  yellow  fellows."  Mr.  Edwards  stated  that  the  grasshop- 
pers had  not  been  so  injurious  in  that  tract  as  farther  west.  Yet  wherever  the 
alfalfa  was  young  and  tender  from  recent  sowing  nothing  appeared  above  ground 
but  stubble.  Where  the  plants  were  older  and  tougher,  the  damage  was  not  so 
noticeable.  In  the  afternoon  and  the  next  forenoon  we  visited  a  number  of  alfalfa 
fields,  and  found  conditions  much  the  same  as  upon  the  first  day. 

In  the  afternoon  of  the  30th,  Hon.  A.  C.  Dyer,  county  attorney  for  Edwards 
county,  took  us  to  a  locality  west  of  Kinsley  where  the  damage  had  been  great. 
Here  the  small  Rocky  Mountain  Locustt  was  more  abundant,  with  a  goodly  number 
of  the  Two-striped,  Melanoplus  btvitattut,  but,  as  before,  the  Differential  Lo- 
cust was  by  far  the  more  abundant.  Adjacent  to  one  piece  of  alfalfa  there  had 
been  a  piece  of  corn  which  they  entered  after  the  alfalfa  had  been  cut  and  com- 
pletely stripped  it,  killing  it  before  tassels  had  appeared. 

It  was  not,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  amount  of  damage  done 
that  the  visit  was  made  so  much  as  to  note  existing  conditions.  These  will  be 
discussed  farther  on  under  the  head  of  "Alfalfa  and  the  Grasshoppers."  Here  we 
will  say  that  everywhere  we  were  glad  to  observe  that  of  the  Differential  Locust 
(M.  differentialia}  there  were  apparently  as  many  dead  as  alive  to  be  seen.  Nat- 
ural enemies  were  at  work,  but  too  late  to  be  of  any  assistance  in  preserving  this 
year's  crop,  though  certainly  of  benefit  in  curtailing  the  number  of  eggs  which 

*This  was  in  accordance  with  a  determination  made  for  us.  Specimens  after- 
ward sent  by  request  to  Mr.  W.  D.  Hunter,  Nebraska  State  University,  were  cor- 
rectly determined  as  the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust,  Melanoplus  atlanis. 

t These  were  afterward  determined  by  Dr.  Hough  as  Sarcophaga  cimbicis 
Town. 


12  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

would  hatch  to  destroy  next  year's  growth.  In  many  cases  the  cause  for  death 
was  apparently  the  work  of  a  fly  which  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  back  of  the 
grasshopper.  The  larvae  -  small,  whitish,  worm-like  creatures,  or  maggots  soon 
find  their  way  into  the  interior  of  the  grasshopper  and  produce  the  death  of  the 
insect.  These  larvae  were  found  in  a  number  of  the  specimens  taken,  and  later 
two  of  them  changed  in  the  laboratory  to  adults.  They  proved  to  be  flesh-flies 
(Sarcophaga  sp. )  Many  of  the  'hoppers  had  been  deprived  of  one  or  both 
wings  the  work  of  the  locust  mite. 

As  previously  stated,  by  the  request  and  with  the  cooperation  of 
a  number  of  the  leading  alfalfa  growers  of  this  locality  I  resumed  my 
investigations  upon  this  subject  on  the  5th  of  July.  That  the  situa- 
tion may  be  more  clearly  understood,  it  is  probably  better  to  give  by 
counties  the  conditions  existing  in  the  territory  studied : 

EDWARDS  COUNTY. — In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Kinsley  no  great 
damage  was  done.  A  drive  over  the  greater  part  of  Edwards  county, 
in  company  with  Superintendent  Smart,  showed  the  greatest  damage 
to  be  about  fifteen  miles  southwest  of  Kinsley.  Here  large  areas  of 
alfalfa  are  grown.  There  were  3000  acres  in  one  tract  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  of  my  camp.  The  first  crop  of  alfalfa  was  being  cut,  and 
by  this  time  the  wingless  nymphs  were  moving  into  adjacent  corn- 
fields. The  numbers  were  by  no  means  general  over  the  entire  quarter- 
sections  of  alfalfa,  but  appeared  to  be  very  thick  in  spots.  Lying  on 
the  south  of  one  quarter-section  which  was  being  cut  was  about  thirty 
acres  of  good  corn  just  beginning  to  tassel.  Insects  moved  into  this, 
and  instead  of  eating  the  leaves  they  ascended  the  stalks  and  ate  the 
tender  young  tassels.  In  some  cases  where  the  ear  of  corn  was  shoot- 
ing they  devoured  that  before  attacking  the  leaves.  They  did  not  seem 
to  work  rapidly,  but  within  two  weeks  had  prevented  an  ear  of  corn 
from  forming  upon  that  piece  of  land.  Upon  another  larger  piece  of 
corn  directly  east  of  this,  they  entered  at  one  corner  and  stripped  that 
corner  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle  including  about  ten  acres.  In  Ed- 
wards county,  I  had  not  observed  nor  did  I  hear  of  damage  being  done 
to  oats,  wheat,  or  barley.  Four  quarter-sections  of  alfalfa  in  that  lo- 
cality, having  a  rather  thin  stand,  were  kept  stripped  throughout  the 
season,  so  that  at  no  time  was  the  forage  worth  the  cutting.  In  the 
midst  of  these  was  where  experiments  were  conducted  last  winter,  of 
which  extended  mention  will  be  made  in  this  repoit.  And  here  also 
practical  applications  of  the  "hopper-dozer"  were  conducted,  concern- 
ing which  discussions  and  descriptions  will  appear  later  in  this  report. 
Mulberry  trees  and  other  fruit-trees  in  the  vicinity  of  the  alfalfa  fields 
were,  after  the  first  cutting  of  the  alfalfa,  entirely  stripped  of  their 
leaves.  Weeds  such  as  the  sunflower  and  lamb's-quarters  were  de- 
nuded, leaving  only  the  bare,  white,  stripped  stalks  standing. 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN    GENERAL.  13 

FORD  COUNTY. — In  Ford  county  the  conditions  were  much  the 
same  as  in  Edwards  county.  Damage  was  local.  In  one  field  there 
would  be  large  numbers  of  grasshoppers  and  in  other  fields  near  by 
there  would  not  be  an  unusual  number.  An  examination  of  the 
species  doing  the  damage  showed  that  the  one  which  by  its  numbers 
was  the  cause  of  a  great  part  of  the  injury  was  the  yellow  grasshopper,* 
Melanoplus  differ  entialis.  There  was  also  present  the  Two-striped 
Locust,  Melanoplus  bivitattus.  When  I  first  entered  the  county  this 
Two-striped  Locust  was  everywhere  in  the  adult  stage.  While  upon  the 
first  day  of  my  investigations  I  did  not  see  more  than  half  a  dozen 
adult  individuals  of  the  yellow  locust.  At  different  times  during  my 
investigations  I  tried  to  ascertain  the  relative  numbers  of  these  two 
specif  s,  by  catching  grasshoppers  just  as  they  came,  and  concluded 
that  Ihere  were  about  twenty-five  yellow  locusts  for  every  one  of  the 
Two-striped  Locust.  More  will  be  said  in  another  place  concerning  the 
different  species  in  cultivated  grounds  and  adjoining  pastures. 

FINNEY  COUNTY. — By  request,  I  went  to  Finney  county  to  make  an 
investigation  of  the  condition  there.  In  company  with  Mr.  C.  S. 
Hambleton,  of  Garden  City,  I  drove  first  west  of  Garden  City,  to  the 
ranch  of  Mr.  John  A.  Stevens,  where  on  the  n:>rth  side  of  the  road 
was  a  fine  alfalfa  field,  bringing  forth  its  second  crop,  while  on  the 
other  side  of  the  road  was  another  alfalfa  field  whose  first  crop  was 
being  stripped  by  the  native  grasshoppers.  About  two  miles  farther 
west  we  came  to  a  large  apple,  peach  and  plum  orchard  on  the  north 
side  of  the  road.  The  apples  were  on  the  north  boundary  of  the  or- 
chard, the  peaches  in  the  middle,  and  the  plums  on  the  side  near  the 
road.  The  apple  orchard  had  been  stripped  of  leaves,  and  in  some 
places  three  or  four  grasshoppers  could  be  found  eating  at  a  single 
apple.  The  peaches  had  been  eaten  off,  leaving  the  bare  pits  clinging 
to  the  twigs.  The  younaj  twig  growth  of  peach  trees  had  been  eaten 
in  preference  to  the  foliage.  A  man  was  there  at  work  building 
smudges  to  turn  the  locusts  from  the  plums,  which  were  almost 
ready  to  gather.  Upon  inquiry,  I  learned  that  this  farm  had  been 
largely  seeded  to  alfalfa,  but  during  the  last  two  years  had  been  pas- 
tured. The  damage  done  to  this  place  was  the  greatest  that  I  ob- 
served in  any  of  the  thirteen  counties  that  I  visited.  I  believe  the 
cause  is  so  evident  that  at  this  point  will  say  no  more  than  simply 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  ground  upon  this  plat  had  not 

*  This  was  the  term  commonly  applied  by  the  farmers  of  that  region.  Another 
locust  bears  this  common  name,  and  this  one  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the 
Differential  Locust.  In  this  report,  however,  I  have  frequently  used  the  term 
yellow  locust,  and  wherever  used  it  has  reference  to  Melanoplus  differ  entialis. 
I  do  this  because  this  insect  is  quite  generally  known  over  the  region  covered  by 
this  report  as  the  "  yellow  grasshopper."  The  words  locust  and  grasshopper  are 
used  interchangeably. 


14  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

been  disturbed  for  more  than  two  years  past.  The  previous  cultiva- 
tion had  left  the  alfalfa  as  a  food  not  only  for  the  cattle,  but  for  the 
native  grasshopper,  which  flourished  undisturbed.  Returning  by  an- 
other route,  and  going  out  east  of  town,  we  found  the  damage  nowhere 
general,  but  all  alfalfa  fields  showed  the  effects  of  grasshoppers  in 
places. 

HAMILTON  COUNTY. —  Being  also  requested  to  visit  Hamilton  county, 
I  went  there  upon  the  18th  of  July.  Mr.  C.  M.  Humphrey,  county 
treasurer,  being  aware  of  ray  coming,  took  me  to  a  number  of  farms 
in  the  vicinity  of  Syracuse.  While  in  his  office  I  met  Hon.  Thomas 
H.  Ford,  who  gave  me  a  cordial  invitation  to  accompany  him  home  to 
his  ranch,  about  five  miles  east  of  Syracuse.  Having  been  previously 
informed  that  he  was  one  of  the  largest  alfalfa  growers  in  the  county,  I 
readily  accepted.  On  our  way  out  we  observed  grasshoppers  glisten- 
ing, as  Mr.  Ford  termed  it,  from  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa  stalks  grow- 
ing in  fields  adjoining  the  road.  I  walked  through  all  of  these  fields,  to 
make  sure  of  the  species  most  prevalent,  and  in  every  case  found  the 
Differential  Locust  by  far  the  most  numerous.  In  one  corner  of  a  field, 
comprising  less  than  an  acre,  I  found  a  fungous  disease,  Empusa 
gr'dli,  at  work.  Here  were  goodly  numbers  of  locusts  clinging  in 
the  tops  of  the  alfalfa  stalks.  I  was  much  interested  here,  as  this 
was  the  first  time  I  had  observed  the  disease  this  season.  Upon 
reaching  Mr.  Ford's  place,  I  was  told  the  grasshoppers  had  been  so 
bad  that  he  saw  the  only  way  to  save  so  large  a  crop  of  alfalfa  was  to 
cut  it  all  down  as  fast  as  possible.  Accordingly,  at  that  time  the 
whole  alfalfa  crop — more  than  400  acres  in  all — was  either  in  the 
windrow,  swath,  or  shock,  except  a  small  piece  that  he  had  allowed 
to  remain,  hoping  to  secure  seed.  His  young  orchard  was  being 
rapidly  stripped  by  the  grasshoppers  which  had  been  driven  out  of 
the  alfalfa.  His  neighbor  on  the  east,  Mr.  Price,  was  also  suffer- 
ing a  great  loss  of  peaches  in  satisfying  the  appetites  of  these 
creatures.  Here  was  the  first  time  I  had  had  the  opportunity  to 
observe  the  work  of  the  locusts  in  the  irrigated  districts.  Former 
reports  have  stated  that  these  native  locusts  deposit  their  eggs  along 
the  irrigating  ditches,  and  that  along  these  the  damage  is  the  great- 
est. My  own  observation,  and  the  testimony  of  all  the  farmers  con- 
sulted, did  not  bear  out  the  above  facts.  On  the  contrary,  the  most 
luxuriant  growth  of  alfalfa  is  on  the  sides  of  the  ditches.  Many  of 
the  farmers  here  were  of  the  opinion  that  these  locusts  come  down 
from  the  prairies.  I  mention  this  fact  here,  because  in  my  subse- 
quent investigations  I  gave  this  point  special  attention.  Before  leav- 
ing the  subject  of  Hamilton  county,  I  might  state  that  I  returned  two 
weeks  later  to  observe  the  action  of  the  fungus  disease,  Empusa 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  15 

grilli,  in  the  corner  of  the  field  before  mentioned,  and,  while  plenty 
of  grasshoppers  were  still  in  that  corner  of  the  field,  I  could  see  no  per- 
ceptible increase  in  the  number  of  dead  ones  clinging  to  the  branches 
of  the  alfalfa.  From  Syracuse  I  drove  due  north  through  Hamilton 
county,  passing  Stowell  post-office,  two  miles  and  one-half  on  the 
east,  and  continuing  north  into  Greeley  county.  I  was  very  much 
interested  in  noting  the  species  prevalent  on  these  high  plains.  The 
Differential  Locust,  the  one  to  which  I  gave  the  closest  attention  at  all 
times,  was  found  few  in  numbers  among  those  weeds  that  thrive  only 
on  ground  which  has  previously  been  broken.  Near  Stowell  I  came 
upon  a  large  peach  orchard  standing  out  unprotected  on  the  plain,  and 
found  therein  some  peaches,  but  not  a  single  yellow  grasshopper.  An 
occasional  Lubber  grasshopper,  Brachystola  magna,  and  a  number  of 
the  smaller  species  of  the  genus  Melanoplus,  were  all  that  were  com- 
mon on  the  open  prairie  away  from  those  weeds  which  are  wont  to 
grow  upon  cultivated  lands. 

GREELEY  COUNTY. — I  entered  Greeley  county,  six  miles  north  and 
two  and  one-half  west  of  Stowell,  and  found  a  few  grasshoppers  be- 
tween that  point  and  Horace,  where  I  spent  the  night.  Those  that  I 
did  find  were  the  same  as  in  Hamilton  county,  and  existed  under  like 
conditions.  North  of  Horace,  in  the  valley  of  White  Woman  creek, 
there  are  a  number  of  farms  growing  corn,  Kafir-corn,  barley,  and 
sorghum.  I  visited  these  and  conversed  with  the  owners.  From  these 
farmers  I  learned  that  grasshoppers  were  not  troubling  them,  and  that 
they  had  suffered  no  serious  damage  from  these  insects  in  recent  years. 
Leaving  this  valley,  I  proceeded  north  in  the  direction  of  Sharon 
Springs.  Near  the  north  line  of  Greeley  county,  and  extending  over 
into  Wallace,  is  a  settlement  of  Swedish  farmers,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stockholm.  I  found  them  at  this  date,  27th  of  July,  in  possession  of 
excellent  crops  of  corn  and  barley,  and  fine  patches  of  melons  and 
garden  vegetables.  At  no  place  were  the  grasshoppers  at  all  numer- 
ous. Some  of  these  farmers  had  been  residing  here  for  ten  years,  and 
they  told  me  that  in  that  time  they  had  never  had  serious  trouble  with 
these  insects.  My  experience  with  these  native  grasshoppers  has  been 
that  they  are  exceedingly  fond  of  garden  vegetables  and  melons.  And 
from  what  I  have  learned  of  their  foraging  propensities,  I  believe  that, 
had  they  been  hatched  in  any  numbers  upon  the  plains  adjoining 
these  farmers,  they  would  certainly  have  found  the  way  to  these  tooth- 
some vegetables  and  tender  melon  vines.  Mr.  C.  J.  Momyer,  Hurt, 
Greeley  county.  Kansas,  wrote  me  that  native  grasshoppers  were  doing 
slight  damage  around  the  edge  of  his  corn  and  cow-peas.  He  spoke 
also  of  the  Lubber  grasshopper,  Brachystola  magna,  working  upon  the 
vines.  He  also  spoke  of  the  habit,  already  noted,  of  the  yellow  grass- 
with  a  heavy  roller  before  sowing  the  wheat.  In  substantiation  of 


16  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

hopper  eating  the  tassels  and  silk  of  the  corn  before  attacking  the 
leaves.  Native  grasshoppers  have  troubled  him  somewhat  for  five 
years.  Farmers  of  this  vicinity  do  not,  as  a  rule,  plow  their  ground 
every  year.  It  was  his  opinion  that  the  best  wheat  could  be  secured 
only  from  ground  thoroughly  cultivated  before  sowing.  Specimens 
of  grasshoppers  received  from  him  proved  to  be  the  Differential  Locust, 
M.  differentially. 

WALLACE  COUNTY. —  Conditions  continued  the  same  on  the  road 
into  Sharon  Springs.  The  valley  of  the  Smoky  Hill  river  contains 
considerable  alfalfa.  I  met  a  number  of  farmers  of  this  valley  who 
were  in  Sharon  Springs  trading.  From  them  I  learned  that  the  grass- 
hoppers had  cut  down  the  alfalfa  in  patches  in  tlie  fields,  but  there 
was  no  general  or  sweeping  destruction  being  caused  by  them. 

LOGAN  COUNTY. —  From  Sharon  Springs  I  went  on  a  slow  train 
over  the  Union  Pacific  through  Logan  county  as  far  as  Oakley. 
From  what  I  could  see  from  the  train  and  ascertain  from  farmers 
boarding  the  train  at  the  smaller  stations,  I  was  satisfied  that  condi- 
tions were  in  no  way  different  from  the  counties  previously  visited. 
From  Oakley  I  went  north  by  train  to  Colby. 

THOMAS  COUNTY. — Inquiries  made  at  Colby  gave  answers  much 
the  same  as  those  previously  received,  and  made  me  believe  that  a 
drive  out  through  the  country  would  not  add  any  new  facts  concern- 
ing the  actions  of  the  grasshopper  under  consideration. 

SHERMAN  COUNTY. —  Press  reports  having  been  sent  out  from  Good- 
land  concerning  the  prevalence  of  grasshoppers  along  the  railroad, 
their  numbers  being  reported  such  as  to  interfere  with  the  action  of 
the  drive-wheels  upon  the  rails,  I  decided  to  go  out  and  investigate. 
Upon  reaching  Goodland,  I  was  taken  out  in  the  gardens  and  yards  of 
the  city  by  Attorney  G.  L.  Calvert,  and  shown  the  actions  of  the  lo- 
custs upon  the  gardens.  From  Mr.  Calvert  I  also  learned  that  the 
damage  from  grasshoppers  in  Sherman  county  had  been  almost  en- 
tirely confined  to  the  crops  of  small  grains;  that  the  grasshoppers 
had  eaten  off  the  heads  of  the  wheat,  oats  and  barley  to  a  considerable 
extent,  in  some  fields.  In  the  current  issue  of  the  Goodland  Repub- 
lican, I  noticed  that  a  correspondent  from  one  of  the  outlying  post- 
offices  mentioned  the  fact  that  grasshoppers  were  injuring  gardens 
seriously.  In  conversation  with  Mr.  William  Walker,  a  hardware 
merchant  of  Goodland,  and  also  owner  of  farm  lands  managed  under 
his  direction,  I  learned  that  it  was  a  custom  there  to  sow  the  wheat 
upon  the  ground  without  giving  the  land  previous  cultivation.  It 
was  Mr.  Walker's  opinion  that  better  yields  could  be  secured  if  the 
surface  of  the  ground  was  thoroughly  pulverized  and  then  packed 
this,  he  gave  the  instance  of  a  man  who,  this  year,  had  sown  wheat 
upon  ground  so  prepared  and  secured  a  heavier  yield  of  wheat  which 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL.  17 

r  T  pFQ  i»  **  r^1^ 

tested  over  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  Later,  I  wont  to  the  round- 
house of  the  Rock  Island  railroad,  at  Goodland,  and  examined  a  num- 
ber of  the  cow-catchers  of  the  engines,  as  they  came  in  off  their  runs, 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  species  of  grasshoppers  caught  along  the 
track.  I  found  the  species  which  were  most  common  there  to  be  the 
Long- winged  Locust,  Dissosteira  longipennis,  the  Carolina  Locust, 
Dissosteira  Carolina,  and  the  yellow  locust,  Melanoplus  differentials. 
Through  the  courtesy  of  General  Foreman  Loy  and  his  assistant,  I 
was  enabled  to  meet  a  number  of  the  engineers  and  learn  from  them 
the  state  of  the  case.  From  Engineer  Maclellan  I  learned  that  the 
trouble  with  the  grasshoppers  was  always  at  night,  and  that  at  no  time 
were  they  so  plentiful  but  that  an  engine  having  forced  sand  draft 
could  easily  pass  over  them  in  safety ;  and  further,  that  they  had  ex- 
perienced some  difficulty  on  the  run  between  Goodland  and  Norton. 
So,  when  leaving  Goodland,  I  placed  myself  in  a  favorable  position  to 
view  the  grasshoppers  as  they  flew  by  in  front  of  the  engine,  and 
noted  that  no  grasshoppers  arose  except  as  the  train  was  passing  be- 
tween fields  where  the  crop  was  being  harvested  on  the  one  side  and 
corn  or  some  other  crop  standing  on  the  other  side.  The  numbers  at 
these  places  were  not  great.  It  was  evident,  however,  that  the  grass- 
hoppers, in  moving  into  the  new  feeding  ground  in  the  evening  when 
the  ground  had  become  cool,  were  attracted  by  the  steel  rails  which 
retained  the  heat  longer  than  the  ground,  and  when  thus  collected 
caused  the  trouble  to  the  trains.  It  seemed  conclusive  that  the  inter- 
ference on  the  track  was  not  because  of  the  number  of  grasshoppers, 
but  because  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  track  were  drawn  to  the  rail 
by  the  heat.  Some  of  the  newspaper  accounts  which  I  read  would 
lead  one  to  believe  that  they  were  creeping  over  the  track  in  a  contin- 
uous mass.  Letters  received  in  answer  to  inquiries,  from  Messrs.  D. 
A.  Long,  of  Ruleton,  and  T.  W.  Simmons,  of  Goodland,  gave  the 
following  facts :  Mr.  Simmons  stated  that  they  severely  damaged  his 
oats,  corn,  potatoes,  and  garden  vegetables.  He  stated  that  those  big 
yellow  grasshoppers  mined  out  the  pie-plant ;  he  feared  that  some  of 
his  trees,  being  stripped  so  early,  are  permanently  injured.  Mr.  Sim- 
mons said  that  this  was  the  first  year  that  grasshoppers  had  ever  com- 
mitted any  serious  depredations,  and  that  the  damage  this  year  was 
quite  local  in  its  extent.  He  also  said  it  is  the  belief  there  among 
many  that  ground  plowed  dried  out  worse  than  when  not  plowed,  and 
that  it  was  the  custom  to  drill  the  wheat  in  the  stubble  year  after 
year.  Specimens  received  from  Mr.  Simmons  were  as  expected — the 
Differential  grasshopper.  Mr.  Long's  letter  is  as  follows  : 

DEAR  SIR:  In  reply  to  yours  of  the  18th,  in  regard  to  grasshoppers,  I  would 
say  that  they  did  a  great  deal  of  damage  here  this  year  in  spots,  mostly  in  the 
fields  of  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  by  cutting  off  the  heads  of  the  grain.     Some 
—2 


18  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

fields  suffered  one-fourth,  some  one-third;  the  'hopper  seems  to  breed  right  in  the 
field.  There  was  no  effort  put  forth  to  destroy  them.  The  farmers  do  not  plow 
their  ground;  they  generally  disk  or  drill  in  the  grain.  I  think  deep  plowing 
would  be  a  success,  and  in  fact  it  has  proven  to  be  the  case  here  this  year,  as 
some  of  the  farmers  had  plowed  deep,  and  then  drilled  their  wheat  in  deep,  and 
almost  doubled  the  yield,  and  increased  quality  as  well.  The  'hoppers,  I  have  ob- 
served, appear  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  do  their  work  in  the  month  of  July, 
Last  year  they  were  killed  off  by  a  little  red  bug  or  mite  so  small  one  could  hardly 
see§it  with  the  naked  eye.  I  will  send  you  a  few  specimens  in  a  few  days.  They 
are  now  working  on  the  corn-fields,  on  the  outer  edge  only. 

Yours  truly,  D.  A.  LONG, 

Ruleton,  Sherman  county,  Kansas. 

DECATUR  COUNTY. — Reports  had  been  sent  me  of  trouble  from 
grasshoppers  in  Decatur.  Observations  that  I  took  in  the  vicinity  of 
Dresden  and  Jennings  showed  conditions  similar  to  those  already 
stated.  At  Dresden  I  noted  a  field  of  forty  acres  of  corn,  lying  north 
of  a  field  of  oats  just  harvested,  almost  entirely  stripped,  while  just 
across  the  road  was  another  field  of  equal  size  entirely  free  from  at- 
tack. Such  instances  could  be  observed  in  every  county  where  I  was. 

NORTON  COUNTY. — It  was  my  intention  to  visit  a  number  of  agri- 
cultural localities  of  Norton  county.  I  was  fortunate,  however,  in 
meeting  in  the  office  of  Judge  Case,  County  Surveyor  J.  C.  Newell, 
whose  work  had  recently  taken  him  over  all  parts  of  the  county.  Mr. 
Newell  stated  that  the  damage  in  Norton  was  almost  wholly  confined  to 
alfalfa.  He  said  of  thirty  pieces  of  alfalfa,  ranging  in  size  from  ten  to 
eighty  acres,  he  had  noticed  that  the  effects  of  grasshoppers  were 
noticeable  more  or  less  in  all.  He  had  observed  no  alfalfa  fields  that 
had  been  entirely  stripped.  In  some  the  blooms  and  seed  had  been 
taken  off,  and  in  others  spots  here  and  there  in  the  field  had  been 
eaten  to  the  ground.  Mr.  E.  E.  Ames,  of  Norton,  also  told  me  that 
grasshoppers  were  doing  slight  damage  in  100  acres  of  alfalfa  which 
he  owned.  Mr.  A.  J.  Brunswig  has  large  alfalfa  interests  in  this 
county,  and  on  page  7  I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  quote  a  letter  from 
him,  giving  his  observations. 

Light  damages  were  being  reported  by  the  press  from  other  locali- 
ties, but  I  decided  that  the  territory  covered  gave  me  a  clear  idea  of 
the  situation  in  this  state.  So,  after  leaving  Norton  county,  I  re- 
turned to  my  field  laboratory  in  Edwards  county  to  complete  ob- 
servations upon  the  life-history  of  the  Differential  grasshopper. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


19 


SPECIES  OF  GRASSHOPPERS  PREVALENT. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  the  Differential  Locust,  Melanop- 
lus differentialis,  was  by  far  the  most  abundant.  Melanoplus  at- 
lanis, the  Lesser  Migratory  Locust,  and  Melanoplus  bivitattus,  the 
Two-striped  Locust,  were  numerous.  The  Red-legged  Locust,  Melan- 
oplus femur '-rubrum,  was  taken  occasionally,  generally  along  the 
roadside.  The  Packard  Locust,  Melanoplus  packardi,  was  not  un- 
common. On  September  1,  I  saw  females  of  the  Packard  Locust 
ovipositing  in  an  alfalfa  field  in  Edwards  county.  The  Rocky 
Mountain  Locust,  Melanoplus  spretus,  was  also  taken. 


FIG.  1.    (Original.)    Melanoplus  differentialis;  female. 


FIG.  2.    (Original.)    Melanoplus  differentialis;  male. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  relative  numbers  of  M.  spretus  and 
M.  atlanis  present.  With  this  object  in  view,  I  captured,  just  as 
they  came,  a  number  of  these  allied  species,  and  found  among  that 
number  sixty-eight  specimens  of  M.  atlanis  and  nineteen  specimens 
of  M.  spretus.  This  observation  was  made  in  the  western  part  of 
Edwards  county.  The  Long-winged  Locust,  Dissosteira  longipen- 
nis,  was  abundant  in  one  locality,  southwestern  part  of  Edwards 
county;  here,  in  September,  the  females  deposited  their  eggs  in 
the  alfalfa  fields.  The  Carolina  Locust,  Dissosteira  Carolina,  was 
numerous  along  the  roads. 

The  determination  of  these  species  was  made  by  the  writer,  and 
for  the  accuracy  of  the  work  he  is  responsible. 


20  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


LIFE-HISTORY  OF  THE  DIFFERENTIAL  LOCUST. 

Melanoplus  differentialis  Thos. 

This  term,  in  its  biologic  sense,  refers  to  the  cycle  of  the  individual 
from  the  embryo  until  the  fulfilment  of  its  mission  in  the  perpetuation 
of  its  species  and  its  retirement  in  favor  of  its  progeny.  The  life  of 
the  locust  may  be  said  to  begin  with  the  egg,  in  which  the  following 
changes  take  place,  and  are  noted  under  the  head  of — 

EMBRYOLOGY. 
By  Mr.  C.  E.  McCLUNG,  Department  of  Zoology.    Instructor  in  Embryology. 

Description  of  the  egg. — The  arrangement  of  the  eggs  in  the  ovary 
and  the  formation  of  the  capsule  have  already  been  described ;  it  is 
therefore  only  necessary  to  add  a  decription  of  the  individual  egg. 
This,  at  the  time  of  oviposition,  is  an  ovate  cylindrical  body,  about 
5  mm.  by  1.25  mm.  in  size,  and  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  gradually  be- 
coming darker  with  age.  The  cylindrical  form  is  not  perfect,  being 
modified  in  such  a  manner  that  the  anterior  side  of  the  egg,  as  it  lies 
in  the  mother  insect,  is  flattened  or  even  concave,  while  the  opposite 
side  is  equally  convex  (fig.  3).  The  two  ends  are  very  similar  in 
shape,  each  being  bluntly  pointed. 


tiff  I 


FIG.  3.    Eggs  of  Melanoplus  differentialis. 
(About  five  diameters.) 

The  egg  is  protected  by  two  coats,  the  exterior  (chorion),  a  secre- 
tion of  the  follicular  epithelium  ;  and  the  interior  (vitelline  mem- 
brane), the  external,  indurated  portion  of  the  egg  substance.  The 
chorion  is  a  close  fitting  shell,  completely  enclosing  the  ovum.  It  is 
usually  of  a  dull  yellow  color,  and  is  marked  over  its  entire  surface 
by  ridges  that  cross  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  an  irreg- 
ular hexagonal  pattern.  This  is  merely  a  cast  of  the  lining  of  the 
ovarian  follicle,  registered  in  its  secretion.  The  chorion  is,  at  first, 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  21 

tough  and  resistant,  but,  on  exposure  to  the 

elements,  becomes  friable  and  easily  separable. 

Upon  the  removal  of   this  external   covering, 

the  clear,  bright  yellow  of  the  underlying  egg 

substance  is  seen. 

The  structureless  vitelline  membrane  forms 

an   efficient  protection   for  the  enclosed   egg. 
FiG4  It  withstands  drying,  and  is  broken  only  by 

the  application  of  considerable  pressure.  Im- 
mediately beneath  it  is  a  layer  of  protoplasmic  material,  the  real  liv- 
ing matter  of  the  egg,  and  within  this  a  considerable  quantity  of 
nutritive  material,  the  yolk. 

My  observations  upon  these  eggs,  manner  of  placing  in  the  ground 
and  the  actions  of  the  female  during  the  time  of  oviposition  are  here- 
with given.  A  female  in  quest  of  a  suitable  position  for  placing  the 
eggs  generally  moves  slowly  about  for  some  time  testing  the  ground 
over  which  she  passes.  During  this  time  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  is 
turned  downward  and,  stopping  momentarily,  the  ovipositors  (plate 
ii )  are  applied  to  the  ground.  I  observed  one  female  spending  thirty 
minutes  in  this  way ;  a  crevice  in  the  soil  being  selected  and  worked 
upon  for  a  time,  then  abandoned  for  solid  ground.  Some,  however, 
begin  digging  and  complete  the  work  where  the  first  attempt  is  made. 
Small  elevated  spots  on  the  surface  appear  to  be  much  chosen.  Fre- 
quently these  little  hillocks  were  not  noticeable  until  marked  by  a 
locust  digging  into  the  crest.  From  plate  in,  figures  g,  g,  g",  it  is 
evident  that  there  has  been  a  consensus  of  opinion  in  these  cases  con- 
cerning the  suitability  of  the  place  for  oviposition.  Sandy  soil,  when 
present,  seems  preferable. 

That  field  observations  might  be  corroborated  in  the  laboratory,  I 
brought  home  130  of  the  yellow  locusts,  more  than  100  of  these  being 
females,  for  study  in  the  vivarium. 

In  one  cage  sixty  were  placed,  and  blue-grass  sod,  clover  sod,  sand 
and  dirt  mixed,  and  pure  sand;  each  class  of  soil  occupied  a  certain  part 
of  the  floor,  the  whole  floor  being  well  packed  by  sprinkling.  In  this 
cage,  the  pure  sand  was  chosen  by  all  except  eight,  which  placed  their 
eggs  in  the  sand  and  dirt  mixed.  Refuse  from  the  vegetation  given 
them  for  food  seemed  in  no  way  to  intefere  with  their  work.  I  saw 
three  of  them  hid  away  in  this  trash  busily  engaged  in  ovipositing. 

A  suitable  place  chosen,  the  locust  forces  a  hole  in  the  ground  by 
means  of  the  two  pairs  of  horny-tipped  ovipositors  at  the  end  of  the 
abdomen.  These  are  opened  and  closed  and  the  full  weight  of  the 
body  is  brought  to  bear  on  them.  In  this  way  a  receptacle  is  made, 
often  in  extremely  firm  ground,  for  the  eggs. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  23 

Each  egg  is  preceded  by  a  light-colored  mucous  fluid.  Part  of  this 
fluid  passes  through  the  walls  of  the  cavity  and  causes  surrounding 
particles  of  dirt,  sand  and  in  some  cases  small  clods  ( see  plate  in,  fig. 
d )  to  adhere,  so  that  the  pods  when  removed  from  the  ground  are 
protected  first  by  a  coat  of  this  sticky  substance  and  an  outer  layer 
•composed  of  particles  of  surrounding  earth.  This  forms  a  brittle  crust 
which,  when  pressed,  often  scales  off,  as  shown  by  plate  in,  c.  When 
the  ground  is  firm,  the  walls  of  the  pod  are  generally  broken  away 
when  the  earth  is  disturbed,  thus  exposing  the  naked  eggs. 

This  substance  before  hardening  is  quite  plastic ;  after  hardening 
it  is  somewhat  fragile.  It  is  insoluble  in  water.  A  pod  which  re- 
mained in  water  thirty  days  appeared  to  be  as  firm  as  when  placed 
there.  When  the  eggs  are  all  deposited  the  female  covers  them  with 
a  small  amount  of  this  sebaceous  fluid.  This  hardens  into  a  honey- 
comb structure,  as  shown  is  cross-section  of  top  of  pod  FT  in  plate  in. 
The  cross-line  near  top  of  pod,  at  5'  in  plate  in,  shows  depth  of  this 
covering.  The  whole  pod  is  finished  about  one-quarter  inch  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  ground  covered  over,  leaving  no 
trace  of  work,  as  shown  on  ground  surface  in  plate  n. 

The  arrangement  of  the  eggs  is  shown  in  the  longitudinal  section  of 
the  pod  in  the  foreground  of  plate  n. 

Number  of  eggs  in  pod  is  about  100,  and  in  the  ovary  about  the 
same  number  can  be  counted. 

Plate  n  is  from  nature.  The  writer  had  made  a  section  through 
the  vivarium,  showing  egg  pods  in  position,  and,  while  the  artist  was 
sketching  this,  a  locust  very  accommodatingly  came  forward,  began  and 
completed  the  work  of  oviposition. 

Where  the  eggs  are  laid  is  of  greatest  interest  to  the  farmer.  The 
alfalfa  fields  with  no  intervening  weeds  between  the  alfalfa  plants 
f  urnish  excellent  open  spots  for  oviposition.  Here  I  saw  many  species 
placing  their  eggs,  and  was  surprised  to  find  the  Long- winged  Locust, 
Dissosteira  longipennis,  among  the  number.  Mr.  Wm.  Weber,  who 
was  with  me  and  rendered  valuable  assistance  during  the  summer,  gave 
this  point  careful  attention.  He  was  able  to  cover  considerable  terri- 
tory in  the  southwest  portion  of  Edwards  county.  This  territory  in- 
cluded pastures,  alfalfa  fields,  and  cultivated  lands.  He  found  the 
yellow  grasshoppers  depositing  eggs  in  all  these  places.  They  were  far 
more  abundant,  however,  in  the  alfalfa  fields,  and  remarkably  so  in  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  II.—  Melanoplus  differentialis,  female,  ovipositing ; 
egg-pods  of  same  species  exposed  to  view.  Grasshopper  at  right  is  depositing 
eggs.  Three  egg-pods  in  section  of  soil  show  position  of  pods  and  depth  from 
the  surface.  Egg-pod  in  sand  near  grasshopper.  Egg-pod  in  foreground,  opened 
on  one  side  to  show  position  of  eggs  within;  this  one  contained  109  eggs. 


PLATE  III.    (Original.)    SEE  BOTTOM  OF  OPPOSITE  PAGE. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  25 

middle  ridge  of  roads  passing  through  the  fields.  In  one  place  he  saw, 
011  a  road  ridge,  in  a  space  about  twenty  inches  wide  by  three  rods 
long,  one  grasshopper  per  every  two  inches  square  of  ground,  oviposit- 
ing. 

The  first  oviposition  that  I  observed  occurred  September  10,  and 
after  making  a  large  number  of  dissections  I  feel  reasonably  certain 
that  few  eggs  were  deposited  before  that  time.  Ovipositions  were  not 
of  general  occurrence  until  September  20.  and  egg  laying  was  contin- 
ued until  cold  weather. 

Eggs  placed  in  the  ground  at  this  late  season  of  the  year  will  not 
receive  heat  sufficient  to  hatch,  so  that  the  species  pass  the  rigorous 
period  of  winter  in  the  egg-pod.  During  the  first  warm  month  of 
spring  their  eggs  begin  to  hatch  ;  then  come  consumption  of  food  and 
growth  of  body.  Growth  means  expansion.  The  insect  is  surrounded 
from  birth  by  a  rigid  skeleton.  This,  instead  of  enlarging,  yields  to 
another ;  that  is,  the  outer  skin  is  shed  ;  an  under  one,  at  first  soft  and 
accommodating,  makes  allowance  for  the  increase  in  size.  This 
skeleton  soon  becomes  fixed  and  the  insect's  size  soon  requires  a  new 
armament.  This  change,  commonly  called  " shedding  the  skin,"  is 
technically  known  as  molting.  Observations  upon  the  number  of 
molts  this  insect  undergoes  are  not  yet  completed. 

The  most  interesting  molt  is  the  last  one,  the  one  in  which  the 
grasshopper  brings  out  from  the  wings  pads  of  the  skin,  which  is 
being  cast  off,  fully  developed  wings.  The  best  place  for  watching 
this  transformation  was  in  standing  corn,  in  fields  adjacent  to  alfalfa 
fields.  Plate  iv  was  made,  under  direction,  from  the  author's  sketches 
and  a  large  number  of  alcoholic  specimens  taken  in  every  stage  of  the 
transformation. 

The  full-grown  nymph  ceases  to  eat  and,  with  the  head  almost  in- 
variably downward  and  the  antennae  drooping,  fastens  the  claws  firmly 
into  the  stalk  or  blade,  remains  quiet  for  a  short  period,  during  which 
it  can  be  handled  without  being  disturbed ;  a  pulsating  motion  be- 
gins in  the  center  of  the  back  of  thorax ;  this  increases  until  the  whole 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  III.— Egg-pods  of  Melanoplus  differentia  Us  taken 
from  a  sandy  soil,  showing  variations  in  shape,  or,  pod  with  top  broken  off;  6, 
pods  made  of  sand  with  larger  grains  of  sand  or  stone  adhering;  c,  small  portion 
of  outside  shell  broken  off;  r7,  specimens  made  of  sand  and  dirt  with  stones  or 
small  dead  rootlets;  d',  specimens  composed  of  sand  and  dirt,  with  clod  of  dirt 
firmly  fixed  to  the  side:  r,  specimens  broken  off  near  the  top;  /,  shows  an  un- 
finished pod — the  grasshopper  was  disturbed  while  depositing  eggs,  and  the  pod 
taken  in  this  unfinished  state;  g  and  g',  specimens  taken  showing  two  pods 
firmly  fixed  to  each  other,  composed  of  sand;  g",  four  pods  of  sand  and  dirt 
with  small  stick  nnd  dead  rootlets  adhering;  Fr,  cross-section  of  top  of  pod, 
showing  honeycomb  structure  made  by  the  sebaceous  fluid  when  dry. 


PLATE  IV.    (Original.)    SEE  BOTTOM  OF  OPPOSITE  PAGE. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  27 

thorax  moves  up  and  down ;  soon  the  skin  splits  along  the  back  from 
top  of  the  head  to  line  crossing  the  base  of  front  wings;  the  upheav- 
ing action  of  the  thoracic  muscles  continues  until  the  body  drops  to 
the  ground,  leaving  the  nymph  skin  clinging  to  the  leaf ;  the  antennae 
lie  one  on  each  side  of  the  face  and  are  thus  drawn  out  from  under  the 
body ;  the  wings  come  straight  out  of  the  pads  as  narrow,  much- 
wrinkled  portions  of  cuticle.  They  are  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
long  when  the  insect  falls  to  the  ground.  Inside  of  an  hour,  depend- 
ing upon  the  weather  and  time  of  day,  the  wings  attain  their  full 
length,  one  inch  to  one  and  one-quarter  inches.  The  legs  are  not 
brought  into  use  in  discarding  this  skin.  Frequently  the  claws  of  the 
old  skeleton  break  away  from  their  attachment  and  the  insect  falls  to 
the  ground.  This  in  no  way  interferes  with  the  transformation.  The 
insect,  when  free  from  the  old  covering,  though  its  limbs  are  quite 
soft  and  unable  to  maintain  its  weight  well,  crawls  to  some  secluded 
place  where  it  awaits  the  hardening  of  the  bones  and  the  expansion 
of  the  wings.  Before  this  is  fully  completed  the  insect  begins  eating 
again. 

This  change  occurs  more  frequently  in  the  morning,  though  I  have 
•observed  it  at  all  hours  from  sunrise  until  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
The  complete  change  from  beginning  of  molt  until  the  insects  are  fully 
developed  occupies  about  one  hour  and  a  half  on  a  bright,  warm  day. 
Frequently  I  observed  Sarcophagid  and  Tachinid  flies  flitting  ner- 
vously about  the  newly  transformed  insect.  While  I  did  not  observe 
one  light  upon  the  locust,  it  occurred  to  me  that  at  this  time  parasitic 
diptera  might  well  place  their  eggs  thereon. 

The  first  instances  of  the  last  molt  observed  were  on  July  6,  and 
from  the  number  of  adults  then  apparent  I  feel  safe  in  saying  that 
none  had  reached  the  adult  stage  prior  to  July  1.  At  this  time  (July 
1)  adults  of  the  Two-striped  Locust,  Melanoplus  bivitattus,  were  com- 
mon, and  some  of  them  were  pairing. 

These  notes  were  taken  in  the  midst  of  nymphs  in  every  state  of 
change,  and  frequently  five  or  six  were  in  view  at  one  time.  While 
nearly  all  changed  in  July,  there  were  some  still  changing  as  late  as 
September. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  IV.— Various  stages  of  the  last  molt  of  Melanoplus 
differentials.  1,  nymph  just  before  the  breaking  of  the  skin  along  back  of 
thorax;  2,  nymph  beginning  to  come  out;  3,  mature  insect  dropping  to  the 
ground;  4,  cast-off  skin,  still  clinging  to  the  leaf;  5,  grasshopper  climbing  up, 
spreading  wings  to  dry,  and  getting  ready  to  eat;  6',  fully  developed  grasshopper 
on  corn-stalk. 


28  GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL. 

HABITS. 

Food. — What  this  insect  will  eat  depends  entirely  upon  its  neces- 
sities. It  is  a  lover  of  good  food,  and  knows  how  to  find  it  when  pro- 
curable. For  instance,  it  will  eat  the  peaches  before  attacking  the 
tree ;  it  eats  the  shooting  ear  and  tassel  before  touching  the  harden- 
ing blade.  A  list  of  food-plants  as  personally  observed  are :  Trees  — 
cottonwood,  mulberry,  cherry,  apple,  peach,  apricot,  plum;  herbs  — 
alfalfa,  Kafir-corn,  corn  ;  all  cereals ;  all  garden  vegetables,  including 
melons ;  sunflowers,  lamb's-quarters,  hogweed,  Russian  thistle.  Han- 
dles of  hay-forks  left  in  the  field  were  frequently  roughened  by  the 
nibbling  of  these  locusts.  Farmers  in  Edwards  and  Hamilton  coun- 
ties mentioned  the  fact  that  gloves  left  about  the  mowing-machines 
were  cut  by  the  insect.  Binding- twine  has  been  cut  by  them  so  much 
that  a  twine  prepared  by  recipe  not  in  accord  with  their  tastes  is  now 
much  used.  In  confinement  these  locusts  will  feast  upon  one  another. 

Actions. —  Before  sunrise  nymphs  and  adults  begin  to  climb  to 
the  top  of  weeds,  growing  crops,  fence-posts,  or  any  object  standing 
above  ground,  and  remain  there  until  about  ten  o'clock  If  the  ob- 
ject upon  which  they  rest  is  edible,  they  amuse  themselves  nibbling 
away.  I  have  frequently  seen  a  portion  of  an  alfalfa  field  fairly  glisten 
with  the  bodies  of  these  insects  resting  on  the  tops  of  the  plants. 
About  ten  o'clock  they  descend  and  feed  lower  down,  but  ascend 
about  three  P.  M.  again.  If  the  day  is  cloudy  and  cool  the  insects  are 
sluggish,  and  remain  the  whole  day  upon  the  ground ;  so  true  is  this 
that  we  had  to  abandon  work  with  the  "hopper-dozer"  upon  one  cool, 
cloudy  day.  If  the  day  be  cloudy  and  sultry,  they  eat  much  the  same 
as  upon  bright,  warm  days. 

This  habit,  I  believe,  accounts  in  some  instances  for  the  belief 
among  farmers  that  this  locust  comes  in  flights.  One  day  the  blades 
of  corn  will  be  laden ed  down  with  grasshoppers;  the  next  day  not  a 
locust  will  be  in  sight  as  the  farmer  passes  by  to  his  work.  They 
are  upon  the  ground.  Several  instances  of  this  kind  were  brought  to 
my  notice,  where  the  farmers  had  reported  'hoppers  having  left  their 
corn,  or  reappeared,  when  the  conditions  were  caused  by  this  move- 
ment. Grasshoppers  sitting  upon  the  ground,  especially  when  par- 
tially obscured  by  weeds,  do  not  appear  so  numerous  or  so  formidable 
as  when  arrayed  against  a  growing  crop. 

Why  the  borders  of  the  field  are  stripped.— Damage  to  alfalfa  is 
most  apparent  around  the  edges.  This  has  led  to  the  belief  that  the 
insects  enter  the  alfalfa  from  outside  territory.  I  observed  the  same 
conditions  around  long  ricks  of  alfalfa,  along  division  fences,  where 
the  alfalfa  joined  cane  sown  broadcast,  and  around  large  breaks  in  the 
"stand"  of  alfalfa. 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL.  29 

It  seems  evident  to  me  that,  while  some  may  enter  from  surround- 
ing fields,  this  stripping  of  alfalfa  at  places  designated  is  caused  by 
the  insects  being  checked  in  their  progress ;  that  is,  this  grasshopper, 
when  not  feeding,  moves,  walks  awhile,  rests,  walks,  jumps,  in  no  evi- 
dent hurry,  each  one  keeping  a  somewhat  direct  course.  This  action 
obviously  takes  it  to  the  borders  of  the  alfalfa  field.  Here,  finding  its 
food-plant  extending  no  farther,  it  stops ;  it  may  turn  back,  may  travel 
around  the  field,  feeding  as  it  goes.  It  is  evident  that  this  congregat- 
ing along  the  borders  reduces  the  vegetation,  and  alfalfa  once  cut 
down  furnishes  in  its  young,  tender  shcots  extra  attractions,  so  that 
the  insects  remain  here  and  new  growth  can  make  no  advancement. 

Around  the  obstructions  above  mentioned  many  more  grasshoppers 
could  be  seen  than  in  the  open  parts  of  the  fields.  I  spent  much  time 
in  the  vicinity  of  ricks  of  alfalfa  and  noted  the  movements,  in  many 
cases  following  the  insects  from  the  open  field  up  to  the  ricks,  and 
saw  them  in  many  cases  continue  their  course  until  they  had  reached 
the  rick,  then  jump  off,  and  finally  find  their  way  past  the  rick.  The 
number  seemed  to  be  about  the  same  on  every  side  of  the  rick.  I 
speak  of  this  matter  in  detail,  for  it  was  the  one  argument  everywhere 
advanced  in  favor  of  the  theory  of  the  insect's  entrance  from  outside 
territory.  And  that  they  do  come  from  outside  territory  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  case. 

Length  of  Flight. — The  flight  of  this  insect  is  low  and  heavy,  be- 
ing sustained  for  only  a  short  distance.  It  is  readily  taken  in  the  hop- 
per-dozer having  sheet-iron  back  three  and  one-half  feet  high.  I  have 
never  seen  one  carry  itself  200  yards  at  a  single  flight,  though  aided 
by  strong  winds.  Riley  and  Thomas  state  that  this  locust  has  been 
seen,  though  seldom,  at  considerable  heights,  apparently  migrating. 

Habitat. — The  range  of  this  species,  as  given  by  Scudder,  embraces 
the  Mississippi  valley  north  of  latitude  43°,  south  to  the  Gulf,  west  to 
the  Pacific,  south  to  central  Mexico.  It  has  not  been  found  above 
6000  feet.  Recently  it  has  been  taken  in  Camden  county,  New 
Jersey.  Its  range  in  Kansas  is  defined  by  the  cultivated  districts.  I 
have  seen  it  upon  the  streets  of  our  largest  cities,  and  on  the  tilled 
soil  of  the  high  western  plains.  , 

NATURAL   ENEMIES. 

VERTEBRATE.  All  domestic  fowls  feed  upon  locusts ;  chief  among 
these,  and  highly  commendable,  is  a  drove  of  turkeys.  I  have  seen  a 
cat  spend  a  whole  day  catching  grasshoppers.  A  whole  drove  of 
blackbirds  would  sometimes  light  down  where  these  hoppers  were 
plentiful,  and  hold  high  carnival.  The  meadow-lark  is  a  persistent 
locust  catcher,  and  this  lark  abounds  in  the  localities  visited.  The 
plover  picks  a  locust  to  pieces  now  and  then,  seemingly  preferring 


30  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

smaller  forms.  I  came,  however,  upon  a  plover  on  the  high  plains 
in  Greeley  county,  busily  dissecting  a  large  western  cricket,  Anahrus 
sp.  The  major  part  of  the  food  found  in  stomachs  of  quails  and 
prairie-chickens  examined  was  composed  of  insects  belonging  to  this 
family.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  birds  not  generally  accredited  aid 
in  reducing  the  number  of  locusts.  Professor  Snow  first  ascertained 
that  the  red-headed  woodpecker  (Melanerpes  erythrocephalus] , 
yellow-billed  cuckoo  (Coccyzus  americanus) ,  cat-bird  (Galeo- 
scoptes  carolinensis),  red-eyed  vireo  (  Vireo  olivaceus),  great- 
crested  flycatcher  (Myiarchus  crinitus),  and  crow  blackbird  (Quis- 
calus  versicolor)  feed  upon  the  locust.  Prof.  Samuel  Aughey  ha& 
found  by  not  less  than  630  cases  of  dissection  that  ninety  species  of 
birds  are  partial  to  locusts  as  food.  Many  winter  birds  seek  the  egg- 
pods  for  food. 

Mr.  F.  E.  L.  Beal*  states  that  grasshoppers  are  favorite  food  with 
the  yellow-billed  cuckoo.  Several  stomachs  examined  contained  from 
ten  to  twenty  of  these  insects,  a  good  meal  for  so  small  a  bird.  Katy- 
dids and  their  eggs  were  found  in  the  stomachs  of  these  birds.  The 
snowy  tree-cricket  is  also  used  as  food.  Collectively,  this  group, 
Orthoptera.  were  found  in  86  of  the  155  stomachs  examined,  and  fur- 
nish thirty  per  cent,  of  the  year's  food.  Three  per  cent,  of  the  food 
in  May  is  composed  of  these  insects,  and  over  forty-three  per  cent,  in 
July. 

Mr.  S.  D.  Judd  f  states  that  the  greater  part  of  the  insect  food  of 
the  loggerhead  shrike  is  composed  of  grasshoppers  and  crickets, 
and  in  summer  grasshoppers  are  given  preference  as  food.  The  bird 
at  this  season  impales  upon  barbed-wire  fences  and  hedges  more  in- 
sects than  it  utilizes,  so  that  an  examination  of  the  stomachs  would 
not  give  a  correct  estimate  of  the  insects  destroyed. 

I  saw  a  notice  in  some  paper  concerning  an  observation  upon 
snakes,  made  by  Maj.  Frank  Holsinger,  member  of  the  editorial  staff 
of  the  Western  Fruit  Grower.  I  wrote  Mr.  Holsinger  for  details. 
His  letter,  a  part  of  which  follows,  is  of  great  interest : 

/'Some  years  ago,  while  haying,  I  had  a  rake  in  my  hands,  when  an 
immense  blacksnake  ran  from  the  windrow.  I  placed  my  rake  on  it 
to  hold  it,  but  not  wishing  to  kill  it.  It  immediately  disgorged  an 
immense  amount  of  grasshoppers,  of  a  kind  common  in  Kansas,  a  large 
yellow-legged  variety  that  sometimes  becomes  destructive  to  our 
meadows.  I  think  the  discharge  was  fully  one-half  pint,  and  I  could 
discover  in  it  nothing  but  grasshoppers.  I  look  upon  them  as  our 
friends  —  rattlers  and  copperheads  excepted.  I  believe  they  should 

*  Bulletin  No.  9,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Biological  Survey,  June  15,  1898,  p.  12. 
t  Ibid,  p.  22. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


31 


be  protected,  as  their  food  is  from  insects  deleterious  to  farming  in- 
terests." 

From  the  description  given,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  yellow 
grasshoppers  referred  to  belonged  to  the  species  now  under  consider- 
ation. 

INVERTEBRATE.  The  locust  finds,  however,  its  most  unrelenting 
enemies  within  its  own  class.  The  accompanying  figure  5  shows  the 
immature  stage  of  the  locust  mite,  Trombidium  locustarum,  Riley. 
These  were  found,  in 
some  instances,  in  such 
numbers  on  the  under 
side  of  the  wings  of  the 
Differential  Locust  as  to 
cause  the  wings  to  stand 
out  from  the  body.  Lo- 
custs with  one  wing  or 
both  wings  eaten  off  were 
found.  The  wings  of 
many  were  rendered  use- 
less for  flight  by  this 
mite.  According  to  Ri- 
ley, this  mite  drops  from 
the  wings  when  nearly 
full  grown,  passes  through 
the  pupal  state,  and  comes 
forth  an  eight-legged  mite 
to  spend  the  winter,  a  part 
of  its  food  being  locusts' 
eggs.  In  the  spring,  the 

females  deposit  from  300  to  400  eggs,  which  hatch  out  as  young,  six- 
legged  mites,  that  attach  themselves  to  some  host,  the  one  chiefly 
chosen  being  the  locust.  This  is  one  of  the  most  effectual  enemies 
of  the  locust.  It  is  familiar  to  all.  Newspaper  reports  concerning 
locusts,  this  year,  nearly  always  contained  some  reference  to  a  "little 
red  bug  found  under  the  wings." 

Beetles. — Predacious  beetles  and  the  larvas  of  beetles  are  known  to 
prey  upon  the  egg-pods  of  this  species. 

Flies. —  Last  fall,  the  numbers  of  this  locust  seen  dead  in  the  fields, 
destroyed  by  internal  parasites,  made  me  desirous  of  procuring  an  es- 
timate of  the  interruptions  that  parasites  of  this  class  cause.  Accord- 
ingly, I  collected  a  large  number  of  living  forms,  retaining  and  feeding 
them  in  closed  boxes.  I  did  the  same  again  this  year,  collecting  130 
for  this  purpose.  The  computations  upon  these  observations  have 
appeared  elsewhere,  and  are  herewith  given. 


FIG.  5.    (Original.)     Red  mite,  Trombidium  locustarum, 
on  membrane  of  wing  of  locust. 


32  GRASSHOPPERS   IN  GENERAL. 

PARASITIC   INFLUENCES   ON   MELANOPLUS.* 

The  relation  existing  between  the  host  and  its  parasite  is  an  ever- 
interesting  source  of  study  from  a  biologic  standpoint.  Multiplied 
numbers  of  the  former  tend  toward  greater  increase  of  the  latter. 
When  the  parasites  predominate,  the  individuals  of  the  host  tribe  de- 
crease ;  should  the  host  disappear,  the  parasite  must  follow  or  adapt 
itself  to  new  environments.  Absence  of  the  parasite  grants  license  to 
the  increase  of  the  host.  The  prevalence  of  one  is  directly  dependent 
upon  the  other. 

In  order  that  an  estimate  of  the  influence  of  this  condition  upon 
Melanoplus  differentialis  might  be  gained,  the  writer,  while  conduct- 
ing the  summer  field-work  of  this  department  during  the  two  seasons 
past,  collected  a  number  of  the  Differential  Locust.  Fifty  were  taken 
the  first  week  of  October,  1897 ;  130  were  collected  September  3, 1898. 
Twelve  per  cent,  of  those  captured  in  1897  had  been  parasitized  by 
diptera.  Of  those  taken  in  1898,  20  per  cent,  had  been  attacked  by 
parasitic  diptera.  When  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  the  dates 
of  capture  were  before  the  close  of  the  active  season  of  the  parasites, 
and  that  by  reason  of  capture  and  confinement,  some  of  the  locusts 
taken  were  doubtless  saved  from  attack,  the  estimate  can  be  regarded 
as  conservative.  The  duration  of  observation  and  number  of  individ- 
uals considered  -will  not  yet  allow  favorable  deductions  to  be  made 
from  the  eight  per  cent,  increase  recorded  this  year.  In  localities 
where  this  locust  was  superabundant  in  October,  1897,  the  number  of 
dead  forms  showing  an  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  work  of  dipter- 
ous parasites  was  nearly  equal  to  those  moving  about.  The  number 
of  Melanoplus  differentialis  that  appeared  in  the  same  localities  this 
season  was  equal  to,  if  not  greater  than,  those  existing  the  year  pre- 
vious. This  species  of  locust  has  been  of  economic  importance  an- 
nually in  those  regions  for  some  years  past.  This  is,  in  a  measure, 
due  to  the  peculiarly  favorable  condition  existing  there,  environments 
which  appear  to  be  highly  suitable  to  the  rapid  multiplication  of  this 
species.  The  ultimate  effect  of  parasitism  upon  Melanoplus  differ- 
entialis with  such  surroundings  is  yet  to  be  demonstrated. 

Observations  on  this  subject  will  be  continued  by  the  department. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  record  the  data  observed  and  diptera 
concerned.  Dr.  S.  W.  Williston  and  Dr.  Garry  de  N.  Hough  have  very 
kindly  examined  the  specimens  bred.  The  descriptions  and  determi- 
nations of  the  Sarcophagidse  made  by  Doctor  Hough  appear  below, 
The  description  of  the  Tachinidse  which  appear  to  be  new  will  shortly 
be  given  by  Doctor  Williston  in  a  paper  on  the  museum  types  of 
Tachinidse. 

*Kan.  Univ.  Quar.,  vol.  vn,  No.  4,  Oct.,  1898,  series  A,  pp.  205-210. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


33 


Concerning  the  life-history  of  the  diptera  described  in  this  article, 
the  following  notes  have  been  made.  Careful  and  continued  watch- 
ing for  the  act  and  time  of  oviposition  was  not  fully  rewarded.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  last  molt  of  Melanoplus  differ  entialis,  when 
frequently  a  dozen  individuals  could  be  seen  at  one  time  in  various 
stages  of  this  change,  the  writer  noted  numbers  of  Sarcophagida3  flit- 
ting nervously  over  and  about,  alighting  near  the  soft,  viscid  locust, 
then  taking  wing  again.  While  no  act  of  oviposition  or  darting 
downward  was  observed,  as  is  the  case  with  many  parasitic  Hymenop- 
tera  when  placing  their  eggs,  it  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  some  at 
least  of  the  eggs  are  placed  upon  the  locust  at  this  time.  This  belief 
is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  insect  during  the  molt  is  quies- 
cent, is  soft,  and  lightly  coated  with  a  sebaceous  fluid,  and  therefore  is 
an  easier  prey  and  a  greater  attraction  for  parasitic  flies  in  quest  of  a 
host  than  the  active  and  fully  chitinized  insect. 


FIG.  6.  (Original.)  Different  stages  in  transformation 
of  Sarcophagidee.  1,  3,  4,  white  maggot  in  active  stage ;  £, 
maggot  beginning  to  pupate  —  dirty  white  in  color ;  5,  pupa 
case,  light  brown ;  6,  7,  fully  developed  pupa  cases  of  two 
species. 


The  lot  of  specimens  from  which  Sarcophaga  cimbicis  was  bred 
was  collected  on  September  30,  1897;  the  larva  came  forth  from  the 
host  four  days  later.  It  emerged  October  23,  1897.  The  material 
from  which  Sarcophaga  hunteri  was  bred  was  taken  on  September  1, 
1898.  Three  of  these  dipterous  larvae  pupated  on  the  3d,  one  on  the 
6th,  and  the  last  of  the  five  on  the  9th  of  September.  They  emerged 
in  the  following  order :  Two  on  September  6,  one  on  September  8, 
the  remaining  two,  a  male  and  female,  now  in  Doctor  Hough's  collec- 
tion, hold  the  labels  giving  date  of  emergence,  a  copy  of  which  I  did 
not  retain.  There  elapsed,  however,  in  each  case  but  a  few  days  be- 
tween pupation  and  maturation. 

Sarcophaga  cimbicis  Town.;  Can.  Ent.,  vol.  24,  pp.  126,  127,  1892. 

This  specimen,  a  female,  was  determined  by  Doctor  Hough 
from  material  in  his  collection.  He  wrote  that  the  description 
by  Townsend  was  not  then  accessible.  Upon  looking  up  the  list 
—3 


34  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

of  types  in  our  collection,  I  found  the  material,  a  male  and  female, 
upon  which  Townsend  based  his  description.  A  careful  comparison 
with  literature  at  hand,  made  by  Doctor  Williston,  shows  the  three 
specimens  to  be  without  doubt  identical.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  as 
showing  the  range  of  adapt ibility  of  this  species,  that  the  types  were 
bred  from  cocoons  of  Limbex  americana. 


h 
pupa  case  by  its  side.  hunteri  Hough.    Male. 


Here  follows  Doctor  Hough's  description  : 

Sarcopfiaga  (  Tephromyia]  hunterinov.  sp.  Three  males  and  two 
females,  bred  from  Melanoplus  differential's  by  Mr.  S.  J.  Hunter, 
in  whose  honor  I  have  named  it.  Habitat,  Kansas. 

Length,  five  and  one-half  to  seven  millimeters.  Color,  gray  ;  the 
male  rather  brownish,  the  female  whitish.  Abdomen  without  the 
usual  variable  spots  of  a  Sarcophaga,  but  with  three  black  stripes  — 
a  median,  and  on  each  side  a  lateral.  In  the  female  the  lateral  stripes 
are  quite  faint,  and  can  only  be  seen  well  with  a  favorable  incidence 
of  light.  Anal  segments  gray,  retracted  within  the  fourth  segment  in 
the  males.  Palpi  yellow  to  yellowish  brown.  Antennae  brown,  with 
the  apex  of  the  second  joint  and  the  base  of  the  third  yellow  to  a 
varying  extent.  Squamulse  white.  Wings  grayish  hyaline;  first 
longitudinal  vein  not  spinose  ;  third  spinose  for  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  distance  to  the  small  cross-vein.  Legs  black  ;  in  the 
male  more  or  less  brownish  gray  pollinose;  in  the  female  whitish 
gray  pollinose.  Hind  tibia?  of  male  not  bearded. 

Head.  —  Front  of  male  at  narrowest  point  one-sixth  the  width  of 
the  head.  From  this  point,  which  is  about  at  the  junction  of  the 
dorsal  and  middle  thirds,  the  front  widens  both  dorsad  and  ventrad. 
Front  of  female  of  uniform  width,  six-twentieths  the  width  of  the 
head.  The  exact  measurements  are:  Male,  front  0.4  mm.,  head  2.5 
mm.  ;  female,  front  0.6  mm.,  head  2  mm. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  35 

Antennm. —  Third  joint  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  second. 
Arista  fully  as  long  as  the  second  and  third  joints  together,  composed 
apparently  of  but  two  joints,  of  which  the  basal  is  very  small  and 
about  as  long  as  broad ;  the  terminal  tapering  as  usual  (its  basal  and 
apical  thirds  black,  its  middle  third  whitish),  and  feathered  for  rather 
more  than  half  its  length  with  rather  long,  fine  hairs.  The  yellow,  or 
perhaps  I  should  say  reddish  yellow,  color  is  more  extensive  on  the 
antennae  of  the  female  than  of  the  male. 

The  vibrissal  angle  is  a  little  above  the  mouth  edge,  and  slightly 
but  distinctly  narrows  the  clypeus.  Dorsad  the  principal  vibrissa, 
the  vibrissal  ridge  is  beset  with  small  bristles  its  entire  length. 
Ventrad  the  principal  vibrissa  are  about  three  smaller  vibrissae. 

The  dorso-ventral  diameter  of  the  bucca  is  one-third  that  of  the 
eye.  It  is  quite  evenly  beset  with  small  bristles,  which  are  larger 
toward  the  edge  of  the  mouth  opening,  where  they  form  a  distinct 
bordering  row. 

MacrochaBtse  of  vertex,  front,  etc.  Male  :  By  far  the  largest  of  the 
vertical  bristles  is  the  inner  vertical;  the  outer  vertical  is  scarcely  if 
at  all  larger  than  the  cilia  of  the  posterior  orbit.  The  greater  ocellar 
are  small;  the  lesser  ocellar  very  small.  Of  the  latter  there  are 
several  pairs,  and  they  extend  over  upon  the  occipital  surface  of 
the  head,  beyond  the  post- vertical  pair,  which  is  small,  &iid  very 
evidently  a  member  of  the  ocellar  group,  The  occipito- central  iff 
present,  and  is  about  as  large  as  the  post- vertical.  There  are  two  or 
three  ascending  and  about  eight  decussating  transverse  frontals.  The 
latter  extend  down  upon  the  gena  about  as  far  as  the  apex  of  the 
second  antennal  joint.  Upon  the  geno-plate  laterad  the  frontals 
there  are  no  large  bristles,  but  an  irregular  row  of  exceedingly  minute 
hairs,  which  begins  at  or  a  little  dorsad  of  the  middle  of  the  geno- 
vertical  plate  and  extends  ventrad  on  the  geno-vertical  plate  and  on 
the  gena  nearly  or  quite  to  the  ventral  end  of  the  latter.  On  the  gena 
this  row  has  a  tendency  to  become  double  and  the  last  three  to  five 
members  of  the  anterior  row  are  much  larger  than  the  rest,  thus  form- 
ing a  rather  prominent  little  group  near  the  lower  corner  of  the  eye. 
The  ciliaB  of  the  posterior  orbit  are  small,  closely  set,  and  well  aligned. 
Parallel  to  them  is  a  second  distinct  row  of  bristles  of  about  the 
same  size. 

Female  :  The  bristles  of  the  head  of  the  female  differ  from  those  of 
the  male  as  follows :  The  outer  vertical  is  almost  as  well  developed  as 
the  inner  vertical.  The  transverse  frontals  number  but  five  or  six. 
The  row  of  minute  hairs  on  the  geno-vertical  plate  and  gena  has  a 
lesser  tendency  to  become  doubled  on  the  gena.  Two  good-sized  or- 
bital bristles  are  present. 


36  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

Thorax. — The  thorax  is  striped  as  is  usual  in  Sarcophagy.     The 
stripes  are  very  distinct  in  the  male,  and  quite  faint  in  the  female. 
The  chsetotaxy  of  the  thorax  is  alike  in  the 
two  sexes,  and  is  indicated  in  the  accompany- 
ing diagram.     The  female  has  a  smaller  num- 
ber of   minute   bristles   than   the  male,  and 
consequently   its    chsetotaxy  is   more   easily 
FIG.  9.  made  out.     In  the  diagram  I  have  indicated 

three  posthumeral  bristles.     The  two  smaller 

ones  are  in  but  one  specimen  large  enough  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  hairs  or  microchaetae.  This  variation  of  the  posthumerals  is 
common  in  Sarcophagce. 

Abdomen. — The  macrochsetse  of  the  abdomen  are  marginal  only. 
Each  segment  has  a  complete  row.  On  the  first  and  second  segments 
they  are  all  of  insignificant  size,  except  two  or  three  at  the  lateral 
border.  On  the  third  segment  all  are  of  good  size  and  they  number 
twelve  to  fourteen.  On  the  fourth  segment  all  are  of  good  size  and 
they  number  fourteen  to  sixteen. 

The  bristles  of  the  legs  are  arranged  as  is  usual  in  Sarcophagce.  I 
can  make  out  nothing  worthy  of  special  notice  here. 

Wing. —  First  longitudinal  vein  not  spinose.  Third  vein  not  spinose 
for  two-thirds  to  three-quarters  of  the  distance  to  the  small  cross- 
vein.  Elbow  of  fourth  almost  exactly  rectangular  and  provided  with 
an  apparent  appendix,  which,  however,  is  not  a  stump  of  a  vein  but 
a  slight  fold  or  wrinkle  of  the  wing.  Hind  cross-vein  sinuous,  longer 
than,  but  hardly  twice  as  long  as,  that  segment  of  the  fourth  vein  be- 
tween it  and  the  elbow.  Hind  cross-vein  and  apical  cross- vein  almost 
exactly  parallel. 

This  species  belongs  to  Brauer's  subgenus  Tephromyia  of  Sarco- 
phaga  ( sens,  lat.)  In  this  subgenus  the  vibrissal  angles  are  distinctly 
above  the  mouth  edge  and,  projecting  somewhat  mesad,  distinctly 
narrow  the  clypeus.  The  abdomen  does  not  have  the  changeable 
spots,  maculae  spuriae,  of  Sarcophaga,  but  is  either  unicolorous  or 
marked  with  fixed  spots  or  lines.  The  European  species  of  this 
group  are  T.  grisea  Meig.,  T.  lineata  Fall,  T.  qffinis  Fall,  and  T. 
obsoleta  Fall.  As  far  as  I  am  aware  hunteri  is  the  first  Tephromyia 
to  be  observed  outside  of  Europe.  Through  the  kindness  of  Herr 
Paul  Stein,  of  Genthin,  Germany,  I  have  now  in  my  possession 
specimens  of  grisea,  affinis  and  obsolete.  From  these  specimens  and 
the  accessible  descriptions  of  lineata,  I  am  able  to  construct  the  fol- 
lowing table  for  separating  the  species  of  this  group. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  37 

A. —  Abdomen  unicolorous,  squamulae  yellow,  wings  strongly  yellow  at  base  — 
grisea  Meig. 

A  A.  Abdomen  with  distinct  black  markings,  squamulae  not  yellow,  wings 
not  strongly  yellow  at  base.  B. 

B.-  Palpi  black.     C. 

C. —  Each  abdominal  segment  with  a  black  dorsal  line,  and  on  each  side  with 
a  narrow,  oblique,  black  spot;  these  spots  often  united  so  that  the  abdomen  pre- 
sents three  black  stripes.  Front  of  male  one-third  the  width  of  the  head  —  linc- 
ata  Fall. 

CO.- -First  abdominal  segment  blackish;  other  segments  each  with  a  dorsal 
black  line,  and  on  each  side  with  a  large,  irregularly  shaped  black  spot.  Front 
of  male  one-fifth  the  width  of  the  head ;  of  female,  one-third  the  width  of  the 
he  '&  — a  flints  Fall. 

JBB. — Palpi  yellow  or  brownish  yellow. 

|D. — Front  of  male  one-fourth  as  wide  as  head;  third  antennal  joint  less  than 
one  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  the  second;  no  intra-alar  bristle  in  front  of  the 
suture  —  obxolefd  Fall. 

I>D. —  Front  of  male  one-sixth,  of  female  less  than  a  third,  as  wide  as  the 
head;  third  antennal  joint  more  than  twice  as  long  as  second,  with  an  intra-alar 
bristle  in  front  of  suture  —  hunieri  n.  sp. 

Dr.  S.  W.  Williston  has  kindly  examined  the  Tachinidffi,  and  will 
give  descriptions  in  a  paper  upon  Kansas  university  museum  types  of 
Tachinidw  in  a  future  number  of  the  Kansas  University  Quarterly. 

Among  these  parasitic  Diptera,  the 
female  fly  deposits  the  eggs,  some- 
times two,  upon  the  back  of  the 
grasshopper,  frequently  when  locust's 
wings  are  spread  in  flight.  The  egg 
soon  hatches,  and  the  larva  feed 
until  full-grown  upon  the  locust's 
vitals.  It  comes  forth  as  a  white 
maggot;  soon  its  skin  turns  brown 
and  forms  a  hard  pupa  case,  from 
which  the  flies  above  mentioned 
emerge  in  adult  form  in  from  ten 
days  to  two  weeks  (see  fig.  6). 

An  Asilid  fly,  Erax  cmerascens,  was  seen  pouncing  upon  the  young 
grasshoppers. 

Locust  fungus,  Empusa  grilli  Fres.  This  disease  can  be  readily 
detected  when  present,  by  the  general  observer,  by  the  numbers 
of  dead  locusts  clinging  to  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa,  weeds,  or  grass. 
On  the  21st  of  July  I  found  this  fungus,  for  the  first  time  this 
year,  at  work  in  one  corner  of  a  small  alfalfa  field  three  miles  east  of 
Syracuse,  Hamilton  county.  The  grasshoppers  were  very  abundant 
upon  this  piece  of  ground.  I  returned  to  this  place  two  weeks  later, 
hoping  to  attain  some  valuable  data  upon  the  natural  spread  of  this 


38 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


disease.  This  second  visit  showed 
that  there  had  been  no  noticeable 
spread  of  the  disease.  Dead  grass- 
hoppers, in  about  the  same  numbers, 
in  practically  the  same  corner  of  the 
field,  were  to  be  seen.  I  did  not  find 
the  disease  working  in  any  other  por- 
tions of  this  field.  I  found  a  few 
dead  grasshoppers  that  had  died  from 
this  disease  in  two  spots  in  two  dif- 
ferent alfalfa  fields  in  Edwards 
county.  In  no  place,  however,  did  I 
note  anything  that  could  be  in  any 
way  considered  an  epidemic,  nor  any 
evidences  that  would  induce  favor- 
able conclusions  concerning  this  dis- 
ease as  a  valuable  check  to  the 
increase  of  this  locust. 

Observations  Made  in  ^Videly  Sepa- 
rated Localities. 

In  the  vicinity  of  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, the  first  specimens  of  this  lo- 
cust were  observed  to  become  winged 
July  19.  Eggs  were  laid  Septem- 
ber 9.  As  a  deviation  from  the  usual 
egg-laying  habits  of  the  genus,  the 
eggs  are  sometimes  very  numerously 
placed  under  the  bark  of  logs  that 
have  been  felled  on  low  lands.  The  eggs  of  this  species,  unlike  those 
of  spretus,  atlanis,  and  femur-rubrum,  are  not  quadrilin early  but 
irregularly  arranged.  The  head  ends  of  the  eggs  in  the  pod  point 
mostly  outward.  One  hundred  and  seventy- five  eggs  have  been 
counted  in  a  single  mass.* 

In  California,  they  acquired  wings  from  the  last  week  in  June  to 
the  last  week  in  July,  and  began  laying  eggs  July  23.  A  single 
female  occupied  seventy-five  minutes  in  depositing  an  egg  mass.  The 
situation  chosen  for  egg  laying  was  invariably  the  edge  of  one  of  the 
basin-like  hollows  ( for  irrigation  ? )  at  the  foot  of  a  tree.  This  locust 
is  not  easily  startled;  its  ordinary  flight  is  rather  heavy,  and  sus- 
tained only  for  a  distance  of  twelve  to  thirty  feet.f 


FIG.  11.  (Orisioal.)  Melanoplus  dif- 
ferentialis  killed  by  fungus.  On  Golden- 
rod. 


*  Riley,  Summary  from  First  Report  U.  S.  Ent.  Com. 
t  Coquillett,  Report  Dept.  of  Agr.  1885,  pp.  295,  296. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  39 

This  insect  has  very  frequently  multiplied  in  such  numbers  in 
limited  areas  over  its  range  as  to  do  considerable  injury  to  cultivated 
crops  growing  upon  low,  moist  ground ;  and  has  even  been  known 
very  frequently  to  spread  over  higher  and  dryer  lands  adjoining  these, 
its  customary  haunts.  It  is  one  of  the  few  species  of  locusts  that  has 
thus  far  shown  a  tendency  toward  civilization.  This  it  has  done 
readily,  since  its  habits  are  in  unison  with  the  cultivation  of  the  soil. 
It  is  only  since  the  settlement  of  the  country  where  it  originally 
occurred  that  it  has  multiplied  so  as  to  become  sufficiently  numerous 
to  become  a  serious  pest. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  cultivated  grounds  that  are  more  or  less  com- 
pact, preferably  old  roads,  deserted  fields,  the  edges  of  weed  patches, 
and  well-grazed  pastures  adjoining  weedy  ravines.  Egg  laying  begins 
about  the  middle  of  August  and  continues  into  October,  varying,  of 
course,  according  to  latitude  and  climatic  conditions.  Usually,  but 
not  always,  only  a  single  cluster  of  eggs  is  deposited  by  each  female. 
Frequently  there  were  two,  and  in  extreme  cases  perhaps  even  three, 
of  these  clusters  deposited  by  a  single  female.* 

ANATOMY. 

It  is  believed  that  a  brief  general  discussion  accompanied  by  fig- 
ures of  the  Differential  Locust,  Melanoplus  differ  entialis,  will  be  of 
practical  value.  Such  a  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  understand 
more  readily  the  direct  action  of  the  external  and  internal  remedies 
used. 

EXTERNAL  ANATOMY.  A  word,  in  beginning,  concerning  skeletons. 
These  are  of  two  kinds :  skeletons  within  the  body  and  surrounded  by 
muscles,  and  those  without  the  body,  having  all  muscles  on  the  in- 
terior. The  skeletal  structure  of  man  comes  under  the  first  class ; 
the  rigid  outer  structure  of  insects  under  the  second  class.  Every  one 
who  has  studied  human  physiology  remembers,  among  the  first  topics, 
"Uses  of  the  Skeleton,"  and  if  he  were  permitted  to  use  another's  lan- 
guage, instead  of  his  own,  he  would  say,  in  answer:  "To  protect  the 
delicate  organs,  to  furnish  attachment  for  the  muscles,  to  give  form  to 
the  body,  to  furnish  levers  for  the  movements  of  the  body."  And,  if 
this  same  scholar  was  to  take  up  comparative  anatomy  later,  he  would 
find  that  the  skeleton  of  the  grasshopper  serves  identically  the  same 
purposes  as  the  human  skeleton.  The  integral  parts  of  the  human 
skeleton  we  call  bones ;  the  separate  pieces  of  the  grasshopper  skele- 
ton we  term  sclerites;  that  constituent  which  gives  bones  their  firm- 
ness we  commonly  speak  of  as  lime ;  that  which  lends  rigor  to  the 

*  Brunei-,  Report  of  Ent.  to  Neb.  St.  Bd.  of  Agr.,  1896,  pp.  120,  121. 


40 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL. 


FIG.  12.  (Original.)  Front  view 
of  head,  with  clypeus  and  labrum 
removed  to  show  mandibles  in 
position,  a,  antenna;  6,  ocelli; 
/?,  compound  eye;  <',  mandible; 
d,  maxilla ;  e,  maxillary  palpus ; 
/,  labium  ;  g,  labial  palpus.  En- 
larged about  five  times. 


sclerite  is  a  horny  substance  called  chitine 
An  examination  of  the  body  wall  shows  it 
to  be  composed  of  a  number  of  distinct 
pieces,  or  sclerites;  the  lines  separating 
these  pieces  are  knowii  as  sutures.  Su- 
tures here,  just  as  in  the  anatomy  of  the 
human  skull,  are  not  freely  movable  joints. 
The  term,  "joint,"  is  reserved  for  those 
articulalations  where  free  motion  is  per- 
mitted, as  is  the  case  at  the  connections  of 
the  parts  of  the  locust's  leg. 

An  examinination  of  the  whole  body 
will  readily  show  three  divisions  —  the 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  The  head, 
apparently  one  piece,  contains  the  mouth, 
eyes,  and  the  long  horns,  knowii  as  an- 
tennaB  •  the  thorax  is  the  heavy  central  part 
of  the  body,  furnishing  attachments  for  the 

wings  and  legs;   the  abdomen  is  the  slender 

portion  extending  backward  from  the  base  of 

hind  wings. 

The  head.  —  The  accompanying  figures  show 

the  head  with  mouth  closed  (fig.  12),  but  upper 

lip,  labrum,  removed  to  reveal  comparative  size 

of  jaws  and  head.     Fig.  13,  with  mouth  open, 

illustrates    the   tongue,   hypopharynx    in   the 

center,  mandibles,  and  part  of  the  maxillae  on 

each  side  beneath  mandibles.  With  such 
tools  and  the  power  to  use  them,  is  it  to  be 
wondered  that  this  insect  is.  omnivorous. 

The  compound  eyes,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  head,  are  the  most  conspicuous  divi- 
sions of  the  head.  Their  surface  is  made 
up  of  a  large  number  of  hexagonal  plates. 
Each  of  these  plates  forms  the  surface  cov- 
ering for  a  simple  eye  admitting  but  one 
ray  of  light.  The  compound  eye  is  but  a 
collection  of  these  simple  eyes. 

The  simple  eyes.  —  Just  above  the  base 
of  each  antenna  can  Jbe  found  a  small 
simple  eye;  between  the  bases  of  thehorn- 
like  antenna?  is  another  simple  eye. 

The  many  jointed  antenna  extend  from 


FIG.  16.  (Original.)  Cly- 
peus and  labrum.  Enlarged 
about  five  times. 


of  ^adf'wSh'mandibfe?  spread 
ESS?/  £ 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


41 


the  upper  part  of  the  face.  The  clypeus  and 
upper  lip  (labrum)  are  drawn  in  full  in  fig- 
ure 16.  The  powerful  toothed  mandibles  are 

shown  open  and 
closed  (figs.  12,13). 
The  movements  of 
the  mandibles 


FIG.  15.     (Original.)     In 
ner  view  of    maxilla.     Lr, 
lac  in  ia  ;  gl,  galea  ;    p, 
ius;     m,    membrane. 
"  about  five  times. 


1- 


FIG.  14.  (Original.)  Labium. 
<7,  gula ;  8,  submentum  ;  M,  menl 
turn ;  Pg,  palpiger ;  Lp,  labia- 
palpus.  Ligula  consists  of  the 
two  flaps  below  mentum.  En- 
larged seven  and  one-half  times. 


are 

confined  to  the  lat- 
eral action  from  the 
median  line  outward 
and  back  again. 
Just  behind  them  are  the  smaller,  more 
strongly  toothed  maxillw,  with  appendages. 
These  are  drawn  and  described  in  figure  15. 
Between  the  maxillae,  and  rising  from  the 
back  wall  of  mouth,  is  the  tongue-like 
organ  known  as  hypopharynx.  The  under 
lip  (labium)  is  shown  as  it  appears  from 
the  back  of  the  head.  Its  subdivisions  are 
The  large  scle- 


A. 


B. 


FIG.  17.  (Original.)     Side  view  of 
thorax.    Enlarged  three  times. 


A ,  Mesothorax. 

a,  parapteron. 

b,  episternum. 

c,  epimeron. 

d,  wing. 


R,  Metathorax. 
b',  episternum. 
c',  epimeron. 
d',  wing. 


given  with  figure  ( fig.  14) 

rite  composing  the  front  part  of  the  head, 

in  which  are  situated  compound  eyes,  sim- 
ple eyes,   and   antennae,  is   known  as  the 

epicranium.     The    upper   part    is    called 

the  vertex,  the  anterior  portion  the  front, 

and  the  sides,  extending  downward  from 

the  compound   eyes,  the  cheeks  or  gence. 

The  thorax  con- 
sists of  three 
divisions  —  the 
prothorax,  bear- 
ing the  front 

pair  of  legs ;  the  mesothorax,  bearing  the 
front  wings  and  the  middle  pair  of  legs ; 
the  metathorax,  bearing  the  hind  wings 
and  last  pair  of  legs. 

The  prothorax  is  made  most  conspicu- 
ous by  the  pronotum — the  large  sun- 
bonnet-shaped  piece  covering  the  back 
—extending  out  over  the  back  of  meso- 
thorax and  covering  the  greater  portion  of 
the  sides  of  the  prothorax  as  well.  The 
subdivisions  of  the  hood  are  given  beneath 


FIG.  16^.  (Original.)  Side  view 
of  prothorax  with  leg.  a,  prse- 
scutum ;  6,  scutum ;  c,  scutellum  ; 
d,  post  scutellum ;  e,  episternum  ; 
m,  membrane,  connecting  head 
with  prothorax,  containing  the 
jugular  sclerites;  /,  coxa  of  leg; 
0,  trochanter;  h,  femur;  ?,  tibia; 
j,  tarsi;  fr,  pulvillus  and  two 
claws.  Enlarged  three  times. 


42  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

figure  16^.  The  sternum  of  the  prothorax  is  a  sclerite  having  a 
small  tubercle  situated  between  the  front  legs.  On  the  membrane 
connecting  head  and  prothorax,  on  each  side  underneath  the  prothorax, 
are  a  pair  of  sclerites  looking  somewhat  like  two  links  in  a  chain ; 
these  are  called  the  jugular  sclerites.  They  are  represented  in  fig- 
ure 16J,  as  is  also  the  episternum  of  the  prothorax  and  prothoracic  leg. 
Mesothorax. — The  middle  part  of  the  thorax,  when  viewed  from 
above,  shows  the  front  wings  (tegmina)  and  mesonotum  between  the 
wings  (fig.  19).  The  mesonotum  consists  of  two  subdivisions — the 
scutum  occupying  the  front  half  and  scutellum  the  back  half  of  this 
division.  The  form  of  each  is  shown  in  figure  19.  From  the  side  can 
be  seen  two  sclerites  named  and  referred  to  in  figure  17,  also  the  place 
of  attachment  of  the  middle  leg.  The  ventral  portion  (mesosternum) 


FIG.  18.     (Original.)     Metathoracic,  or  jumping  leg.    c,  coxa ;  tr,  trochanter ; /,  femur ; 
ti,  tibia  ;  ta,  tarsi ;  p,  pulvillus  and  two  claws.    Enlarged  four  times. 

of  the  mesothorax  is  a  large,  flat,  nearly  rectangular  piece,  having  the 
corresponding  sclerite  of  the  metathorax  dovetailed  into  its  caudal 
margin  (fig.  20). 

Metathorax. — This  part  resembles  both  in  structure  and  function 
the  mesothorax.  Reference  to  figures  17,  19,  20,  will  give  names 
of  parts  and  appearances  in  structure.  Between  the  mesothorax  and 
metathorax,  on  the  side  just  above  the  leg  socket,  is  the  largest  open- 
ing in  the  body  for  the  transmission  of  air.  These  openings  are  called 
spiracles.  See  figure  27  for  illustration  of  structure  and  position. 

Appendages  of  the  thorax. — These  are  the  legs  and  wings.  The 
first  and  second  pair  of  legs  are  used  in  walking  and  grasping ;  the 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN    GENERAL. 


43 


third  pair  in  walking  and  jumping.  The  function  of  tke  third  pair 
differs,  and  yet  the  parts  of  each  are  the  same,  and  these  are  given, 
together  with  their  relative  forms,  in  figure  18. 

The  wings  differ  in  structure 
and  texture.  The  front  wings  (teg. 
mina)  are  large,  narrow,  and  retain  the  same  form 
whether  in  'flight  or  at  rest.  The  hind  wings, 
when  not  in  use,  are  folded  like  fans  and  rest 
under  the  tegmina. 

The  membrane  of  the  wings  is  supported  by 
longitudinal  veins  and  short  cross-veins. 

Abdomen. — The  first  abdominal  segment   fits 
accurately    into    a    notch    in    the    metasternum 


FIG.  19.  (Original.)  Dorsal  aspect  of  body  (female).  A ,  head ; 
1,  antenna  ;  2,  epicranium  ;  3,  compound  eye.  B,  nrothorax  ;  a, 
preescutum  ;  6,  scutum  ;  c,  scutellum  ;  d,  post  scutellum.  C,  mes- 
onotum;  sc,  scutum ;  'scl,  scutellum;  w,  tegmina  or  wing  cover. 
D,  metanotum;  sc,  scutum;  scl,  scutellum;  iv,  wing.  E,  abdo- 
men; 1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  segments;  auct,  auditory  organ; 
*p,  spiracles ;  c,  cerci ;  pp,  podical  plates ;  o,  ovipositor.  Enlarged 
about  three  and  a  half  times. 

( figs.  20,  21 ) .  On  the  upper  half  of  each  side  of 
this  first  segment  is  a  large  opening  covered  with 
a  delicate  membrane  (figs.  21,  24).  These  are  the 
auditory  organs.  The  membrane  is  the  tym- 
panum. In  fig.  24  the  auditory  organ  is  enlarged. 
The  margin  is  the  thickened  tympanum.  The  dark  structure  at  the 
right  on  tympanum  is  the  cone-shaped  prominence  which  is  situated 
just  beneath  the  tympanum.  The  dark  spot  near  center  is  the  trian- 
gular chamber  situated  just  beneath  the  tympanum. 

Just  in  front  of  each  auditory  organ  is  a  spiracle  (figs.  21,  24).    The 
next   seven   segments  contain   breathing   spores  (spiracles)  on  the 


GRASSHOPPERS    IN   GENERAL. 


sides,  at  points  indicated  in  fig.  21.  The 
exact  use  of  these  will  be  more  fully  dis- 
cussed later. 

Beginning  with  the  ninth  segment,  the 
abdomen  is  modified,  and  in  the  structures 
which  follow  are  to  be  found  the  charac- 
teristics which  distinguish  the  sexes.  In 
the  female  the  four  long,  horny-tipped  ovi- 
positors are  prominent.  How  such  small 
instruments  can  execute  so  much  work,  is 
a  matter  not  easily  explained.  Their  uses 
were  discussed  under  "Life-History."  A 
better  idea  of  these  parts  and  relative  forms 
than  can  be  given  in  words  will  be  found  in 
fig.  21.  The  terminal  part  of  the  abdomen  of  the  male  (  figs.  22,  23  ) 
shows,  instead  of  extended  ovipositors,  a  blunt,  hood-shaped  sclerite, 
turning  up  over  that  end  of  the  body  like  the  prow  of  a  barge.  The 


FIG.  20.  (Original.)  Ventral 
view  of  thorax.  Pro.  St.,  pro- 
sternum  ;  Meso.  st.,  mesoster- 
num;  Mela,  st.,  metasternum. 
Enlarged  about  three  times. 


FIG.  21.  (Original.)  Side  view  of  abdomen  (female). 
1,  2,  .i,  it,  .5,  6',  7,  8, 9, 10, 11,  segments ;  Sp.  spiracles ;  and, 
auditory  organ;  o,  ovipositor;  pp,  podical  plates; 
c,  cerci ;  /,  forked  organ.  Ealarged  about  three  times. 


FIG.  22  (Original.) 
Side  view  of  male.  7, 
8, 9, 10, 11,  segments ;  c, 
cerci.  Enlarged  about 
three  times. 


cerci  are  more  prominent  than  in  the  female.  The  abdomen  of  the 
male,  though  consisting  of  the  same  number  of  segments,  is  generally 
shorter  than  the  abdomen  of  the  female. 

INTERNAL  ANATOMY.  An  idea  of  the  internal  workings  of  these 
grasshoppers  will  be  of  value,  and  will  throw  some  light  upon  its  hab- 
its and  the  effects  of  poisons  upon  it.  This  locust 
agrees  with  higher  forms  of  life  in  having  a  circu- 
latory, respiratory,  digestive,  reproductive  and  ner- 
vous system.  It  is  believed  that  the  subject  can 
be  best  explained  under  such  heads,  with  reference 
to  figures  illustrative  of  the  same. 

Digestive  system,. —  The  digestive  system  begins  FIG.  23.  (Original.) 
with  the  masticatory  organs  of  the  mouth,  previ-  ?P0pIndSs  °0ff Cmat! 
ously  shown  (figs.  12  to  16).  The  food  is  here  meits*'  l\  cere!!'  En- 
masticated  and  mingled  with  the  saliva  secreted  by  Ifig?'  *bout  three 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


45 


glands  lying  under  the  esophagus.  From  the  esophagus  it  passes 
into  the  crop.  The  food  then  enters  the  gizzard-like  proventriculus ; 
the  inner  walls  of  this  are  lined  with  chitinized  processes  which,  by  a 
series  of  contractions,  grind  up  the  food  and  pass  it  on  into  the 
stomach  proper.  Lying  alongside  of  this 
stomach,  and  connected  to  it,  can  be  seen  on 
each  side  three  long  tubes.  These  are  called 
gastric  pouches  (ceca),  because  it  is  believed 
that  they  secrete  a  fluid  which  corresponds  to 
the  gastric  juice,  and  this  fluid  enters  the 
stomach  to  perform  functions  similar  to  that 
carried  on  by  the  gastric  juice. 

The  food  after  leaving  the  stomach  passes 
into  the  intestines,  the  upper  part  of  which  is 
called  the  ileum  and  the  lower  part  the  colon. 
At  the  forward  end  of  the  ileum  can  be  seen  a 
large  number  of  tubes  (malphigian  tubes)  run- 
ning backward.  These  are  believed  to  perform  the  same  functions  as 
the  kidneys  do  in  the  higher  animals.  While  the  food  is  in  the 
stomach,  and  as  it  passes  through  the  ileum  and  colon,  it  is  believed 
that  .the  nutritive  portions  oozing  through  the  walls  of  this  digestive 
tube  enter  the  circulation.  The  waste  material  is  carried  off  through 
the  colon. 

Circulatory  system. — In  this  locust  there  are  no  arteries  and  no 
veins.  The  circulatory  system,  as  far  as  organs  are  concerned,  is  com- 
prised of  what  we  are  wont  to  call  the  heart.  This  organ  is  a  tube 


FIG.  24.  (Original.)  Ex- 
terior view  of  auditory  or- 
gan ;  Sp,  spiracle.  Enlarged 
about  fifteen  times. 


FIG.  25.  (Original).  Digestive,  circulatory  and  nervous  systems.  1,  2,  3,  £,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
9,  10,  n,  n,  segments ;  a-a,  digestive  tract;  //,  hypopharynx ;  Lb,  labium  ;  Lm,  labrum  ; 
Lp,  labial  palpus ;  mp,  maxillary  palpus ;  (E,  esophagus ;  pp,  ovipositors ;  eg,  egg  guide ; 
co,  colon ;  r,  rectum.  The  heart  is  an  open  tube  running  along  the  back ;  it  is  so  marked, 
but  not  easily  shown.  Enlarged  three  times. 

extending  from  about  the  tenth  segment  of  the  abdomen  up  into  the 
head.  This  tube  has  valves  along  its  sides  which  admit  of  entrance 
of  food  and  do  not  allow  that  which  has  entered  to  escape  until  it 
passes  out  of  the  main  opening  at  the  end  of  this  organ  in  the  head. 
This  leads  us  to  make  a  few  remarks  concerning  the  blood  of  insects. 


46  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

The  blood  of  insects  differs  from  that  of  other  animals  in  having  no- 
red  corpuscles.  It  is  a  thin  fluid  and,  being  a  mixture  of  blood  and 
chyle,  usually  colorless,  but  sometimes  yellowish  or  reddish.  It  i& 
carried  forward  by  this  tube  or  heart  to  the  front  end,  and  then  flow& 
back,  nourishing  the  organs  as  it  passes,  and  likewise  coming  in  con- 
tact with  tracheae,  which  are  everywhere  present  in  the  body.  When 
in  contact  with  these  tracheae,  action  similar  to  that  in  the  human 
lung  takes  place.  More  will  be  said  upon  this  phase  of  the  subject 
under  the  head  of  the  "Respiratory  system."  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  chief  function  of  this  heart  is  to  conduct  forward  newly  made 
blood  and  unused  blood  from  the  back  end  of  the  body,  pour  it  out  at 
the  front  end  of  the  body,  and  allow  it  to  flow  back  like  a  river  in  its- 
course.  This  action  of  the  heart  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  in 
some  caterpillars  with  light  color  and  delicate  skin,  when  held  be- 
tween the  observer  and  the  sun. 


FIG.  26.    (Original.)     Respiratory  system,    ftp.,  spiracles,  showing  tracheae  permeating  all  parts 
of  the  body  ;  tf,  air  sacs.    Enlarged  three  times. 

Respiratory  system. — This  insect,  instead  of  having  one  portion  of 
the  body  set  apart  for  the  purification  of  the  blood,  similar  to  ani- 
mals possessing  lungs,  may  be  said  to  have  lungs  all  over  its  system ; 
that  is,  there  are  tracheae  branched  and  branched  until  they  cover 
every  part  of  the  system  and  extend  to  every  organ  in  the  system. 
These  tracheae  do  not  depend  upon  the  mouth  for  their  supply  of  air, 
but  are  connected  with  the  body  wall  direct,  the  outer  portion  of  this 
connection  being  known  as  spiracles  (figs.  21,  27).  These  spiracles 
have  valves  and  openings  which  close  and  open  at  intervals,  allowing 
free  interchange  of  air.  The  tracheae  which  run  from  these  spiracles 
are  membranous  tubes,  which  do  not  collapse  because  they  are  kept 
open  by  continuous  rings  of  cartilage  similar,  though  on  a  much  smaller 
scale,  to  the  cartilage  in  the  windpipe  of  those  animals  bearing  lungs. 
In  addition  to  carrying  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  it  would  seem  that 
this  distribution  of  air  within  the  body  tends  to  make  the  insect 
.lighter  and  more  capable  of  flight.  In  addition  to  these  tracheae, 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 


47 


FIG.  27.  (Original.)  Side  view, 
showing  spiracle  of  mesothorax  with 
spiracle  enlarged, 


however,  there  are  organs  es- 
pecially   made    to    assist    in 
buoying  the  insect  when  on 
the   wing.     These    are    com- 
monly known  as  air  sacs,  and 
/          connect  with  the  spiracles  as 
/  shown  in  the  figure  (fig.  26). 

Reproductive  system. —  Fig.  25  shows  the  reproductive  organs  of 
the  female,  when  not  laden  with  eggs.  It  consists  of  an  ovary,  egg 
duct,  and  receptacle  for  the  fertilizing  fluid.  Fig.  28  shows  the  ovary 
of  the  female  just  a  few  days  previous  to  the  time  of  oviposition.  It 


FIG.  28.    (Original.)    Reproductive  system  of  female.    Large  egg  sac  lying  above  stomach ;  ovi- 
duct leading  out  above  egg  guide ;  r,  rectum ;  a-a,  digestive  tract.    Enlarged  three  times. 

is  believed  that,  in  these  insects,  each  egg  is  fertilized  in  passing  from 
the  ovary  out  through  the  egg  duct.  The  number  of  eggs  that  the 
ovary  of  this  insect  will  contain  averages  about  100. 

Nervous  system. — The  nervous  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  25.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  ganglia,  or  collections  of  nervous  matter,  situated 
under  the  digestive  canal.  These  ganglia  are  arranged  along  the  body 
just  next  to  the  digestive  tract.  They  are  placed  two  together,  and 


'U1TI7BR 


3IT 


48  GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL. 

these  pairs,  three  pairs  in  the  thorax  and  five  pairs  in  the  abdomen, 
are  joined  to  each  other  and  to  the  ones  of  the  corresponding  side  by 
a  cord  of  nerve  tissue  known  as  a  cpmmissure.  This  forms  a  double 
chain  from  the  back  part  of  the  body  up  to  the  head,  where  a  nerve 
band  is  formed  around  the  esophagus ;  011  the  top  of  the  esophagus 
are  to  be  found  the  two  largest  ganglia  in  the  body  of  the  insect. 
These  two  ganglia  found  above  the  esophagus  might  be  looked  upon 
as  the  brain  proper.  From  these  there  go  out  branches  of  nerves  to 
the  eyes,  to  the  antennae,  to  the  maxillse  and  mandibles,  and  other 
parts  of  the  face. 

MEASURES   OF   PREVENTION. 

It  is  stated  in  sacred  writ  that  there  may  come  a  time  in  the  life  of 
a  man  when  the  grasshopper  shall  be  a  burden.  While  this  prophecy 
referred  to  the  closing  days  of  a  man's  life,  it  is  evident  that  under 
certain  conditions  the  grasshoppers  might  become  a  burden  before 
man  will  have  reached  the  time  when  the  grinders  cease  because  they 
are  few.  To  avoid  this  burden,  then,  is  a  matter  which  will  interest 
every  one  concerned,  and  to  this  subject  we  will  now  devote  our  at- 
tention, under  the  head  of  "Measures  of  Prevention";  and  in  this 
connection  we  will  not  discuss  remedies  in  general,  but  those  which 
we  have  actually  tried  in  the  localities  interested,  and  which  have 
proven  most  successful.  We  are  glad  to  say  that  our  experience  has 
shown  that  in  the  cases  under  observation  it  is  not  by  killing  two 
birds  with  one  stone,  but  rather  three  birds,  instead  of  two.  have 
been  hit  with  the  same  missile. 

As  before  stated,  the  conditions  which  favor  the  rapid  multiplica- 
tion of  this  species  are,  the  soil  undisturbed  by  cultivation,  and  food- 
plants  which  send  forth  nourishing  vegetation  early  in  the  spring. 
These  conditions  are  to  be  found  in  Kansas  wherever  alfalfa  is  sown 
and  not  cultivated  thereafter,  and  where  the  small  grain,  such  as  bar- 
ley and  wheat,  are  sown  without  the  ground  being  previously  stirred. 
Wherever  we  have  found  these  conditions  we  have  found  this  species 
of  grasshopper  in  burdensome  numbers,  together  with  other  kinds  of 
locusts  in  lesser  numbers. 

In  the  first  place,  I  should  like  to  call  the  attention  of  those  inter- 
ested to  the  subject  of  the  value  of  cultivating  wheat  ground  before 
sowing  the  seed.  In  making  this  suggestion,  I  am  fully  aware  there 
is  an  opinion  prevalent  in  the  western  part  of  this  state  that  more 
wheat  can  be  raised  upon  ground  into  which  the  seed  has  been  placed 
without  previous  preparation  than  upon  the  same  ground  after  having 
received  some  cultivation.  While  I  am  aware  that  this  belief  of  the 
farmers  is  based  upon  observation  covering  several  years,  I  believe 
that  observations  proving  the  contrary  can  be  found. 


GRASSHOPPERS   IN   GENERAL.  49 

In  substantiating  this  statement.  I  refer  to  a  tract  of  land  near 
Goodland,  Kan.,  the  circumstances  of  which  were  related  to  me  by 
Mr.  Wm.  Walker  and  Mr.  G.  L.  Calvert,  both  of  Goodland.  This 
piece  of  land  produced  this  year  thirty-five  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
gave  a  quality  of  wheat  that  tested  sixty-three  pounds  to  the  bushel. 
A  number  of  pieces  of  wheat  in  the  same  locality  were  seeded  by  sow- 
ing in  the  stubble  and  gave  only  nominal  yields.  In  this  connection, 
it  might  be  well  also  to  mention  the  Campbell  soil-culture  method, 
which  consists  largely  of  thoroughly  cultivating  the  upper  layer  of 
the  soil  and  then  thoroughly  packing  the  same.  Very  favorable  re- 
ports have  been  received  concerning  the  results  derived  from  this  sys- 
tem of  tilling  the  soil.  And  further,  I  am  glad  to  make  an  extract 
here  from  a  letter  received  from  Hon.  B.  A.  McAllaster,  land  commis- 
sioner of  the  Union  Pacific  railway.  The  extensive  landed  interests 
of  Mr.  McAllaster  bring  him  in  contact  with  many  different  soils, 
different  climates,  and  different  methods  of  culture.  These  facts  make 
him  speak  advisedly  when  he  says : 

UNION  PACIFIC  RAILROAD  COMPANY,  LAND  DEPARTMENT, 

OMAHA,  NEB.,  August  18,  1898. 

DEAR  SIR  —  I  am  particularly  impressed  with  the  statement  made  by  you  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  paper,  to  the  effect  that  the  action  of  western  farmers  in 
not  plowing  their  land  except  in  periods  of  three  to  five  years  apart,  is  one  of  the 
principal  causes  for  the  increase  of  grasshoppers.  It  is  and  has  been  my  opinion, 
very  frequently  expressed,  that  the  crop  failures  in  the  western  part  of  the  state, 
which  have  been  experienced  during  the  past  few  years,  are  to  a  considerable 
extent  due  to  this  failure  to  properly  plow  and  cultivate  the  land.  It  seems  to 
me  that  a  farm  should  be  plowed  every  year  in  western  Kansas,  just  the  same  as 
it  is  in  other  parts  of  the  universe,  and  if,  as  alleged  by  the  farmers  as  an  excuse 
for  their  methods  out  there,  the  plowing  of  the  ground  allows  the  seed  to  be 
blown  away  by  the  high  winds,  that  could  be  overcome  by  rolling  the  ground 
after  plowing,  or  by  using  a  subsurface  packer.  I  believe  that  if  I  were  a  west- 
ern farmer,  I  would  prefer  taking  my  chances  of  seed  being  blown  away,  rather 
than  having  the  crop  eaten  up  by  the  grasshoppers.  Yours  truly, 

B.  A.  MCALLASTER,  Land  Commissioner. 

The  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  letters  of  Mr.  C.  J.  Momyer,  on 
page  15,  and  Mr.  D.  A.  Long,  on  page  17,  for  opinions  upon  soil  cul- 
ture in  western  Kansas. 


—4 


GRASSHOPPERS    AND   ALFALFA.  51 

The  subject  of  prevention,  then,  will  be  considered  under  two  di- 
visions, methods  of  cultivation  and  means  of  destruction. 

ALFALFA   CULTURE. 

Since  it  has  been  shown  in  the  previous  pages  of  this  publication 
that  the  conditions  essential  to  the  production  of  large  numbers  of 
these  native  grasshoppers  are  two  in  number:  an  undisturbed  soil  for 
the  safe  retention  of  the  eggs,  and  an  early  food-plant  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  young  insect,  every  one  who  is  familiar  with  an  alfalfa 
field  will  readily  see  that  in  this  field  are  two  conditions  which  are 
highly  adaptable  to  the  production  of  these  insects. 

The  problem  which  faced  this  department  when  attention  was 
called  to  the  subject  two  years  ago  was,  how  to  disturb  the  solidity  of 
the  alfalfa  field,  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  grasshoppers,  and  yet  main- 
tain the  integrity  and  life  of  the  plant.  This  is  the  problem  which 
was  not  readily  solved,  and  after  a  solution  was  presented  it  did  not 
find  ready  acceptance. 

The  mode  of  procedure  was  as  follows  :  It  was  already  known  that 
the  alfalfa  plant  has  a  long  tap-root,  which  extends  many  feet  beneath 
the  surface  ;  and  experiments  showed  that  this  root  could  be  chopped 
and  split  at  the  top,  and  yet  the  life  of  the  plant  maintained  with  the 
same  degree  of  vigor.  The  attention  of  the  farmers  had  been  called 
to  this  fact,  and  they  were  strongly  urged  to  disturb  the  soil  of  their 
alfalfa  fields  with  the  disk  harrow.  Many  were  influenced  to  do  this, 
but  some  were  of  the  opinion  that  the  fields  would  be  injured  by  the 
process.  A  further  discussion  of  the  subject  may  be  better  set  forth 
by  giving  a  detailed  account  of  the  work  carried  on  upon  the  land 
where  the  experiments  of  this  department  were  conducted.  Early  in 
March,  1898,  Mr.  J.  H.  Smart,  following  instructions,  caused  disk 
harrows  to  be  run  over  160  acres  of  alfalfa  ground  belonging  to  the 
firm  of  Ball  &  Goddard,  for  whom  he  is  superintendent.  I  have  asked 
Superintendent  Smart  to  give  a  brief  statement  of  his  work,  manner 
of  conducting  the  same,  and  his  opinion  upon  the  results.  Believing 
that  the  same  will  be  of  great  value  to  those  interested,  I  have  caused 
it  to  follow : 

ALFALFA,  IRRIGATION  AND  LAND  COMPANY, 
CATTLE  BREEDERS  AND  DEALERS,  KINSLEY,  KAN. 

The  good  effect  of  cultivation  as  applied  to  alfalfa  has  been  very  apparent 
this  year  on  the  land  of  the  Alfalfa,  Irrigation  and  Land  Company,  situated  in 
Edwards  and  Ford  counties,  and  operated  by  H.  E.  Ball,  of  Topeka,  Kan.  In 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  V. — First  crop  of  alfalfa ;  windrow  in  immediate  fore- 
ground. This  ground  was  thoroughly  disked  in  March.  For  details,  see  Supt. 
J.  H.  Smart's  letter,  above.  Land  in  Ford  county.  (Photographed  by  Hunter 
on  July  23,  1898.) 


52  GRASSHOPPERS   AND    ALFALFA. 

March,  1898,  we  started  two  teams,  disking  160  acres  of  alfalfa  in  Ford  county. 
The  harrow  had  twenty-inch  disks  and  was  set  to  cut  about  three  and  one- 
half  inches  deep,  as  an  experiment.  We  afterward  ran  a  light  small-toothed 
harrow  over  the  ground  to  level  it  after  the  disking.  After  this  harrowing,  the 
ground  had  the  appearance  of  a  wheat  field  that  had  been  plowed  very  shallow. 
Almost  immediately  the  good  effect  of  the  cultivation  commenced  to  show,  and 
so  continued  until  the  present  time,  not  alone  in  the  increased  yield  of  alfalfa, 
but  by  destroying  the  native  grasses  which  had  not  been  entirely  subdued  when 
the  seed  was  sown.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  proper  time  to  cultivate  is  early 
in  the  spring,  while  the  ground  is  mellow,  after  the  winter  freezing,  and  the  plant 
has  not  started  to  grow.  The  cutting  up  of  the  ground  at  this  season  of  the  year 
also  exposes  all  the  eggs  of  the  insects  to  the  action  of  the  early  frosts.  This  is  very 
noticeable  on  this  particular  field,  as  there  was  not  one-sixth  as  many  'hoppers 
as  on  an  adjacent  tract  of  an  equal  area,  sown  in  the  same  season  by  the  same 
party,  and  treated  in  every  particular  the  same,  with  the  exception  of  the  disk- 
ing given  the  former  in  the  spring.  The  yield  was  one-third  more  and  of  a  bet- 
ter quality  than  the  land  that  received  no  cultivation.  There  was  no  bad  effect 
on  the  plant  to  be  noticed,  such  as  cutting  off  the  crown  of  the  plant.  It  seemed 
to  do  it  good.  The  yield  of  the  second  crop  was  a  decided  surprise.  We  will 
continue  the  disking  of  our  alfalfa  fields  this  winter  and  early  spring.  I  will  disk 
a  part  of  the  same  quarter-section  this  spring  that  we  did  last  spring,  and  note 
the  effect.  In  addition  to  increase  of  yield  and  absence  of  grasshoppers,  this  field 
was  very  noticeable  on  account  of  being  clear  of  weeds  and  free  from  native 
grasses.  J.  H.  SMART,  Assistant  Superintendent. 

My  own  observations  upon  this  quarter-section  I  have  endeavored 
to  record,  not  only  by  means  of  words,  but  by  photographs  taken  at  the 
time,  plates  of  which  were  made,  and  appear  as  plates  i,  v,  and  vi,  with 
detailed  descriptions  given.  The  first  crop  averaged  in  height  twenty- 
nine  inches ;  stalks  of  extreme  length  were  found  thirty-three  inches. 
This  first  crop  was  marked  by  an  evenness  in  height  of  growth,  and  by 
the  remarkable  freedom  from  the  presence  of  native  grasses  and 
noxious  weeds.  The  second  crop,  however,  appeared  to  me  to  show 
by  far  the  more  striking  benefits  derived  from  disking  the  ground, 
and,  for  an  idea  of  it,  I  should  like  the  reader  to  return  to  plate  i, 
and  note  the  height  and  luxuriance  of  the  growth.  This  second  crop 
averaged  in  height  twenty-eight  inches;  stalks  of  thirty-two  inches 
were  found.  I  should  like  to  say  further,  that  the  photographs  were 
taken  from  different  places  in  the  field,  and  that  one  place  in  the 
field  appeared  to  be  equally  as  good  as  the  other,  with  the  exception 
of  a  low  swale,  where  the  ground  was  poor  and  non-productive.  Con- 
cerning this  second  crop,  it  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that,  in 
thirteen  counties  traversed,  I  saw  nowhere,  under  any  conditions,  a 
second  crop  of  alfalfa  which  excelled  the  one  upon  this  ground.  It 
is  of  more  striking  interest  to  note  that  this  crop  was  brought  to 
maturity  and  harvested  with  no  appreciable  loss  on  account  of  grass- 
hoppers, while  two  quarter-sections  near  by,  of  the  same  kind  of  soil, 
gave  neither  a  first  nor  a  second  crop  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of 


GRASSHOPPERS   AND   ALFALFA.  53 

grasshoppers.  Here  it  seems  to  the  writer  is  an  excellent  example  of 
the  old  expression,  "killing  two  birds  with  one  stone."  The  destruc- 
tive influences  of  grasshoppers  are  removed,  and  at  the  same  time  and 
by  the  same  work  the  yield  is  made  more  certain  and  of  much  greater 
quantity.  Nothing  was  so  convincing  of  this  effect  as  a  look  over  a 
quarter-section  thus  treated,  and  that  this  view  might  be  given  the 
reader,  plates  numbers  I,  v  and  vi  are  produced. 

At  the  close  of  the  season,  I  asked  Superintendent  Smart  for  an 
estimate  of  the  yield  of  the  alfalfa  land  under  his  care.  His  state- 
ment I  will  give  verbatim  :  "In  regard  to  the  yield  of  alfalfa  on  our 
lands,  I  will  say  that  the  first  crop  raised  on  land  that  was  disked  was 
about  one  and  one-fourth  tons  per  acre,  and  the  second  crop,  one  ton 
per  acre.  We  have  harvested  on  our  lands  in  Edwards  and  Ford 
counties,  the  past  year,  about  2500  acres,  and  the  average  yield  for  the 
first  crop  was  three-fourths  of  a  ton  per  acre,  and  the  second  crop, 
one-half  ton." 

Of  further  interest  will  be  the  wide  experience  of  Superintendent 
Watson  upon  this  subject ;  I  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  ask  him  to 
give  his  views,  and  these  are  as  follows : 

ALFALFA,  IRRIGATION  AND  LAND  COMPANY, 

LAND  DEPARTMENT. 

I  have  been  intimately  connected  with  alfalfa  culture  in  western  Kansas  for 
five  years  and  have  had  charge  of  the  seeding  of  4000  acres.  The  advantages 
and  profits  arising  from  this  crop  are  inestimable.  No  forage-plant  is  better 
adapted  to  the  soil  of  the  Arkansas  valley  than  is  alfalfa.  I  have  observed,  how- 
ever, in  recent  years,  a  prevalence  of  native  grasshoppers.  The  cause  of  their 
increase  was  not  clear  to  me  until  my  attention  was  called  to  their  appearance  in 
alfalfa  fields,  and  that  in  territory  away  from  alfalfa  they  were  not  so  trouble- 
some. For  instance,  I  had  a  half-section  of  land  on  the  high  prairie  in  cultiva- 
tion for  eight  years,  and  grasshoppers  gave  no  trouble  whatever.  Four  years 
ago  I  sowed  twenty  acres  of  alfalfa  upon  this  tract.  This  year  the  grasshoppers 
caused  damage  to  alfalfa  seed  crop  and  damaged  forty  acres  of  wheat  joining.  I 
am  glad,  however,  to  say  that  it  has  become  evident  that  a  better  degree  of  culti- 
vation will  not  only  remove  the  grasshoppers,  but  also  increase  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  alfalfa  produced.  The  alfalfa  lands  disked,  upon  our  ranches,  ac- 
cording to  instructions,  have  shown  remarkable  freedom  from  grasshoppers,  and 
very  satisfactory  increase  in  the  alfalfa  yield.  If  farmers  will  cooperate  in  culti- 
vating their  alfalfa  fields  in  the  early  spring,  and  use  the  'hopper  catcher  to 
capture  any  'hoppers  that  may  appear,  it  is  very  evident,  since  these  are  bred  and 
die  upon  the  same  farm,  that  in  a  year  or  two  there  will  be  no  further  damage 
caused  by  them.  GEO.  W.  WATSON,  Superintendent. 


DESTRUCTION  OF  GRASSHOPPERS.  55 


THE  HOPPER-DOZER. 

See  plates  vii  and  vin,  figs.  29  and  30. 

It  has  been  shown  that  methods  of  soil  culture  which  include  the 
turning  of  the  ground  annually  will  destroy  the  locusts'  eggs  placed 
therein.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  some  may  escape  and  others 
hatch  from  undisturbed  roadsides  and  pasture  lands.  To  destroy 
these  before  the  egg-laying  time  means  not  only  a  cessation  of  the 
damages  caused  by  these,  but  also  that  every  female  killed  causes  a 
reduction  of  the  number  of  young  the  following  year  to  the  amount 
of  at  least  100  individuals. 

The  simplest  and  most  effectual  machine,  the  one  used  by  the  de- 
partment in  its  field-work  this  year,  is  commonly  known  as  the  hop- 
per-dozer. The  plan  of  construction,  it  is  believed,  can  be  best 
set  forth  by  means  of  a  sketch,  giving  dimensions  of  material  used 
and  showing  positions  in  which  each  part  is  placed.  Hon.  Thos.  H. 
Ford,  of  Syracuse,  kindly  sent  me  the  plan  of  the  one  made  under  our 
direction  and  successfully  used  by  him  this  season,  and  this  is  here 
shown.  This  machine  cost  Mr.  Ford,  in  complete  form  ready  for  use. 
five  dollars. 

The  pans  are  more  readily  constructed  from  two  sheets  of  galvan- 
ized iron,  and  more  easily  handled.  These  pans  should  be  two  feet 
wide,  four  inches  deep  in  front  and  eight  inches  at  back.  While  it 
cannot  be  easily  shown  in  the  sketch,  yet  it  must  be  understood 
that  these  pans  are  laid  upon  1x4  boards  previously  nailed  to  run- 
ners. The  height  of  the  runners  is  not  given,  since  that  depends  upon 
the  height  of  crop  to  be  protected.  It  is  important  that  there  be  no 
timbers  in  front  of  pan,  so  that  the  front  line  of  the  pan  may  come  in 
contact  with  the  grain  passed  over.  The  insects  then  fall  directly 
into  the  fluid. 

When  the  machine  is  ready  for  use,  place  two  buckets  of  water  and 
one-half  gallon  of  coal-oil  in  each  pan,  and  then  drive  back  and  forth 
across  the  end  of  the  field  where  the  grasshoppers  are  entering  until 
you  have  filled  the  pans,  remove  insects,  replenish  with  oil  and  water, 
and  continue  until  the  field  is  rid  of  the  pest. 

There  will  be  many  grasshoppers  strike  the  sheet-iron  back,  drop 
into  the  pans  and  immediately  jump  out  again.  Those  farmers  who 
watched  the  experiments  this  year  were  at  first  of  the  opinion  that  the 
locusts  that  jumped  out  had  jumped  away  "to  live  another  day."  The 
writer  asked  those  interested  to  watch  the  insects  and  note  the  actions 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  VI.— Photograph  of  the  disked  alfalfa  field  in  Ford 
county,  showing  the  alfalfa  yield;  in  swath  in  foreground,  in  windrow  in  back- 
ground. Sand-hills  in  the  distance.  (Photographed  by  Hunter,  July  23,  1898.) 


DESTRUCTION   OF   GRASSHOPPERS. 


57 


FIG.  29.  (Original.)     Plan  for  hopper-dozer. 

of  a  grasshopper  that  had  jumped  out.  In  every  case  the  report  was 
that  the  insect  "became  sick  and  soon  died."  In  fact,  persons  going 
over  fields  where  a  day  or  so  before  the  hopper-dozer  had  been  at  work 
were  impressed  with  the  number  of  dead  grasshoppers  scattered  about 
on  the  ground.  An  examination  showed  the  presence  of  coal-oil  upon 
the  body. 

This  coal-oil  and  water  is  an  external  irritant,  and  my  observations 
have  been  that  the  mixture  is  more  effective  than  the  pure  oil  alone. 

The  use  of  the  machine  may  be  best  shown  by  examples.  In  Ford 
coun  y  this  season  a  large  tract  of  alfalfa  was  cut,  and  the  locusts  at 
once  began  moving  into  a  large  field  of  Kafir-corn  which  had  been 
sown  broadcast.  The  hopper-dozer  was  drawn  back  and  forth  across 
the  end  of  the  corn-field  nearest  the  alfalfa  land  until  a  portion  of  the 
field  abou  t  twenty  rods  deep  had  been  gone  over.  Here  it  was  appar- 
ent that  there  were  very  few  grasshoppers ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  ad- 
vance line  of  the  locusts'  march  only  extended  twenty  rods  into  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  VII.— Hopper-dozer  at  work  on  the  ranch  of  Hon. 
Thos.  H.  Ford,  Hamilton  county.  The  photograph  is  taken  in  alfalfa  field, 
which  is  being  protected  for  seed  crop.  Quantity  of  grasshoppers  just  taken 
from  pans  can  be  seen  in  front  of  pans.  This  machine  was  made  after  instruc- 
tions of  this  department,  except  the  2x4  fourteen-foot  extending  forward  by  the 
side  of  each  mule.  These  were  added  by  Mr.  Ford,  and  are  of  great  value  in 
steadying  the  machine.  (Photographed  by  Cass.) 


DESTRUCTION  OF  GRASSHOPPERS. 


59 


FIG.  30.  View  in  front  of  hopper-dozer,  showing  quantity  of  grasshoppers  just  taken 

from  the  pans. 

field.  Two  days  later  the  same  amount  of  ground  was  covered,  but 
not  as  many  insects  were  taken.  Grasshoppers  no  longer  entered  this 
corn  and  the  hopper-dozer  was  no  longer  used  at  this  point. 

It  has  been  my  experience  with  this  machine  that  after  it  has 
passed  over  vegetation  it  does  not  injure  the  plants,  but  in  some  way 
renders  vegetation  distasteful  to  the  grasshoppers,  so  that  they  turn 
their  course  and  seek  food  elsewhere. 

I  have  observed  that  these  native  grasshoppers  enter  a  field  from 
one  corner  or  side,  and  that  they  are  not  as  a  rule  scattered  over  the 
whole  field,  but  occur  in  great  numbers  in  patches.  This  being  the 
case,  it  is  evident  that  with  very  little  labor  with  this  machine  the 
products  of  a  field  can  be  given  full  opportunity  to  mature 

Mr.  Ford,  of  Hamilton  county,  used  this  machine  to  protect  the  al- 
falfa seed  crop.  He  did  not  stop,  however,  with  guarding  this  field, 
but  caught  them  wherever  they  were  to  be  found.  Some  weeks  after 
I  left,  Mr.  Ford  wrote  me :  "I  am  catching  them  whenever  I  get  time, 
and  I  am  now  satisfied  it  is  a  solution  of  the  grasshopper  problem." 
The  machine  is  much  more  efficient  upon  bright,  warm  days,  when  the 
insects  are  upon  the  vegetation  and  active,  than  upon  cold,  cloudy 
days,  when  the  young  locusts  are  resting  sluggishly  upon  the  ground. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  VIII. — Hopper-dozer  at  work  in  Kafir-corn  on 
north  ranch  of  Ball  &  Goddard,  Edwards  county.  J.  H.  Smart,  superintendent; 
Wm.  Weber,  foreman.  Native  grasshoppers  had  entered  this  corn  from  newly 
mown  alfalfa  field  on  the  left,  outside  of  view  in  picture.  (Photographed  by 
Hunter,  July  20,  1898.) 


60  GENERAL   SUMMARY. 

In  1891,  in  Minnesota,  more  than  200  of  these  machines  were 
made  and  used.  It  was  estimated  that  5000  bushels  of  young  grass- 
hoppers were  caught  with  these  machines. 

SPRAYING. 

There  is  one  crop  which  at  the  time  of  alfalfa  harvest  is  too  high 
for  protection  by  means  of  the  hopper- dozer ;  that  is  the  growing 
corn.  This  can  be  readily  protected  by  driving  along  the  outside 
corn  rows  and  spraying  the  corn  thoroughly  with  Paris  green,  one 
pound  to  sixty  gallons  of  water.  The  insects  entering  will  feed  upon 
the  leaves  and  die.  These  rows  should  be  sprayed  about  once  a  week 
until  the  grasshoppers  have  disappeared.  Having  neglected  to  place 
in  my  equipment  a  spraying  pump,  I  was  unable  to  conduct  experi- 
ments and  note  results.  I  give  this  as  a  remedy  without  trial,  and  be- 
lieve it  will  prove  a  sure  destruction  to  all  locusts  entering  the  corn. 
The  five  or  t.en  rows  of  corn  thus  sprayed  had  better  be  removed  be- 
fore the  field  is  pastured.  I  see  no  reason,  however,  why  the  ears  of 
corn  when  husked  would  be  in  any  way  dangerous. 

SUMMARY. 

Native  grasshoppers  require  certain  conditions  for  their  increased 
multiplication.  The  grasshopper  prevalent  this  year  is  frequently 
called  the  yellow  locust,  better  known  as  the  Differential  Locust. 

Large  areas  of  undisturbed  soil  for  deposition  and  protection  of 
eggs,  attended  by  early  spring  vegetation  for  nourishment  of  newly 
hatched  young,  are  the  essential  conditions. 

These  native  grasshoppers,  especially  the  Differential  Locust,  show 
decided  preference  for  cultivated  ground  and  roads  adjacent  to  places 
suitable  for  oviposition.  This  Differential  Locust,  contrary  to  suppo- 
sition, does  not  require  soil  entirely  free  from  grasses  for  oviposition, 
but  will  sometimes  deposit  its  eggs  among  the  roots  of  a  bunch  of 
buffalo-grass. 

Wheat  drilled  in  stubble  or  unplowed  ground,  alfalfa  permitted  to 
grow  on  the  same  undisturbed  ground  from  year  to  year,  furnish  ideal 
surroundings  for  the  welfare  and  productivity  of  native  grasshoppers. 

Wherever  these  conditions  are  found,  in  any  state  in  the  union, 
native  locusts  will  appear  in  numbers  directly  proportionate  to  the 
area  containing  their  required  conditions. 

Wheat,  oats  and  barley  were  not  disturbed  this  season  in  vicinities 
where  large  areas  were  devoted  to  alfalfa. 

Differences  of  opinion  exist  concerning  the  best  methods  of  soil 
culture  for  wheat.  If  grasshoppers  damage  crop,  thorough  tilling 
and  packing  of  the  soil  previous  to  sowing  seed  should  be  the  only 
method  used.  Unless  this  is  done,  harvesters  may  be  produced  on 
the  same  ground  who  will  reap  the  rewards.  Crop  profits  are  figured 
from  the  granary. 


GRASSHOPPER    LAW.  61 

In  alfalfa  culture,  if  the  grasshopper  proves  an  incentive  to  proper 
cultivation,  the  insect  is  a  blessing  in  disguise. 

Disking  alfalfa  fields  in  the  early  spring,  after  the  frost  has  left  the 
ground  and  before  vegetation  has  well  started,  increases  the  yield  of 
the  first  crop  one- third;  matures  the  second  crop  earlier,  and  brings 
from  it  an  equally  increased  yield  ;  destroys  the  native  grasshopper 
eggs  placed  therein,  and  kills  the  native  grasses  which  frequently 
threaten  to  reclaim  the  field. 

The  young  grasshoppers  that  may  hatch  from  undisturbed  ground 
must  be  destroyed.  They  are  raised  upon  the  farm  where  found. 
The  only  way  to  go  out  of  this  kind  of  stock-raising  is  to  kill  all  the 
stock.  This  can  be  readily  done  by  means  of  the  hopper  dozer.  The 
time  to  use  this  is  as  soon  as  the  young  insects  begin  to  hop  in  the 
spring.  Every  female  grasshopper  killed  means  one  hundred  grass- 
hoppers less  the  next  year. 

Contagious  diseases  and  mortal  enemies  among  the  lower  animals 
have  thus  far  failed  to  keep  these  native  locusts  in  check.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  that  man  can  do  it ;  upon  him  rests  the  responsi- 
bility. Proper  cultivation  and  vigorous  and  intelligent  use  of  the 
hopper-dozer  will  free  any  farm  of  this  locust,  and  the  labor  expended 
will  be  the  best  investment  of  the  year.  The  greatest  good,  the  per- 
manent reduction  of  this  locust,  can  be  brought  about  by  the  active, 
persistent  cooperation  of  all  concerned. 

GRASSHOPPER  LAW. 

Below  we  print  an  extract  from  the  General  Statutes  of  Kansas  re- 
lating to  the  destruction  of  grasshoppers,  and  found  in  volume  2 
(1897  edition),  on  page  939. 

CHAPTER  120,  SESSION  LAWS  OF  1877. 

SEC.  5.  In  any  senatorial  district  in  the  state  of  Kansas  where  trouble  is 
anticipated  from  the  ravages  of  young  grasshoppers  in  the  year  1877,  and  any 
subsequent  year  thereafter,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  counties  in,  said  senatorial 
district  to  cooperate  together  in  the  way  and  manner  herein  provided  for  the 
destruction  of  the  same. 

SEC.  6.  The  chairman  of  the  board  of  county  commissioners  in  the  county 
having  the  largest  number  of  inhabitants  in  a  senatorial  district,  where  two  or 
more  counties  form  said  senatorial  district,  may  notify  the  chairman  of  each  of 
the  boards  of  county  commissioners  of  the  remaining  counties  in  said  district  of 
the  time  and  place  when  the  chairmen  of  the  several  boards  of  commissioners  of 
the  respective  counties  forming  said  senatorial  district  shall  hold  a  joint  meeting. 

SEC.  7.  At  such  meeting  two  of  their  number  shall  be  chosen  to  act  as  chair- 
man and  secretary,  and  the  proceedings  of  the  meeting  shall  be  published  in  all 
the  newspapers  printed  in  the  senatorial  district. 

SEC.  8.  Said  meeting  shall  designate  the  manner  of  procedure  by  road  over- 
seers, and  what  day  or  days  the  young  grasshoppers  should  be  driven  from  the  cul- 
tivated land  onto  the  unburnt  prairie  or  places  of  destruction,  and  shall  also 


62  GRASSHOPPER  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

designate  on  what  day  or  days  the  grasshoppers  shall  be  destroyed,  by  burning 
or  otherwise,  in  said  senatorial  district,  giving  at  least  ten  days'  notice  of  the 
same  by  publishing  in  the  newspapers  of  the  said  district. 

SEC.  9.  The  board  of  commissioners  of  each  county  shall  notify  the  road 
overseers  of  said  county  of  the  time  fixed  upon  by  the  joint  meeting  for  the  driv- 
ing and  burning,  or  destroying  by  other  means,  of  the  grasshoppers  in  the  dis- 
trict ;  said  notice  to  be  given  to  said  road  overseers  as  soon  as  practicable  after 
the  same  shall  have  been  determined  by  the  joint  meeting. 

SEC.  10.  Said  road  overseer  shall  immediately  notify  the  residents  of  his  road 
district  of  the  time  designated  and  the  manner  of  procedure,  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  He  shall  also  specify  what  tools  or  implements  will  be 
required  by  each  resident  in  performing  the  labor  required  by  him;  and  such  no- 
tice may  be  enforced  the  same  as  in  the  act  authorizing  road  overseers  to  warn 
out  the  residents  to  perform  road  labor;  and  a  refusal  shall  subject  such  persons 
refusing  to  the  same  penalties  as  are  provided  by  law  in  such  cases. 

SEC.  11.  The  road  overseer  shall  direct  the  manner  of  performing  the  labor, 
and  have  the  supervision  of  the  same,  and  shall  keep  a  list  of  the  names  of  those 
who  shall  perform  labor,  and  shall  certify  to  the  number  of  days'  work  performed 
by  each,  and  shall  place  such  certified  list  in  possession  of  the  board  of  county 
commissioners  of  his  county. 

SEC.  12.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  two  or  more  senatorial  districts  to  cooperate 
together  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  on  a  basis  of  action  which  they  may 
agree  upon. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Melanoplus  differential's. 

Caloptenus  differentialis.  UHLER!,  MS.  (1863).  WALSH,  RILEY,  Amer., 
Ent.,  I  (1868),  p.  16;  ibid.,  I  (1869),  p.  187.  THOMAS,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc. 
Philad.,  1871  (1871),  p.  149.  GLOVER,  111.  N.  A.  Ent.,  Orth.  (1872),  pi.  vm,  fig. 
12.  pi.  ix,  fig.  4,  pi.  xi,  fig.  6.  THOMAS,  Rep.  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Terr.,  V  (1873). 
p.  166,  pi.,  fig.  5;  Key  111.  Orth.  (1874-75),  p.  3.  RILEY!,  Ann.  Rep.  Ins.  Mo., 
VII  (1875),  pp.  124,  173,  fig.  &3;  ibid.,  VIII  (1876),  pp.  153,  154.  PUTNAM,  Proc. 
Dav.  Acad.  Sc.,  I  (1876),  p.  266.  THOMAS,  Bull.  111.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist,  I 
( 1876),  p.  68.  WHITMAN,  Grasshopper  (1876),  p.  19,  fig.  BRUNER,  Can.  Ent,  IX 
(1877),  p.  144.  BESSEY,  Bienn.  Rep.  Iowa  Agric.  Coll.,  VII  (1877),  p.  209. 
THOMAS,  Rep.  Ent.  111.,  VI  (1877),  pp.  44-45.  RILEY,  Loc.  Plague  (1877),  pp. 
89,  194,  198-201,  fig.  34;  Amer.  Nat.,  XII  (1878),  p.  284;  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm., 
I  (1878),  pp.  220,  223,  225-226,  228,  298-299,  301,  327,  447,  459,  figs.  32,  110,  pi.  iv, 
fig.  1.  THOMAS,  ibid.,  I  (1878),  p.  42;  Bull.  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv.  Terr.,  IV  (1878), 
p.  500.  RILEY,  Bull.  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm.  Ill  (1880),  p.  39;  Amer.  Ent.,  Ill  (1880), 
p.  220.  THOMAS,  Rep.  Ent.  111.,  IX  (1880),  pp.  91,  96,  127-128,  fig.  24;  Rep.  U. 
S.  Ent.  Comm.,  II  (1881),  pp.  106-107.  LINTNER,  Ins.  Clover  (1881),  p.  5.  OS- 
BORN,  Amer.  Nat.,  XVII  ( 1883),  pp.  1286-1287.  BRUNER,  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent.  Comm. , 
III  ( 1883),  pp.  54,  60.  FORBES,  Rep.  Ins.  111.,  XIV  (1884),  p.  23.  RILEY,  Stand. 
Nat.  Hist.,  II  (1884),  pp.  194-195,  fig.  271.  OSBORN,  Bull.  Iowa  Agric.  Coll.  Dep. 
Ent  ,  II  (1884),  p.  &3.  BRUNER,  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent,  1884  (1885),  p.  399.  RILEY, 
Amer.  Nat,  XX  (1886),  pp.  558-559.  COOK,  Beal's  Grasses  N.  A.,  I  (1887),  p. 
373.  WEED,  Bull.  Ohio  Agric.  Exp.  St.,  Techn.  Ser.,  I  (1889),  pp.  40-41.  LUG- 
GER, Rep.  Agric.  Exp.  St.  Minn.  (1889),  p.  340,  fig.  16.  OSBORN,  Ins.  Life,  IV 
(1891),  pp.  50,  51,  55;  Rep.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont,  XXII  (1891),  pp.  70-73.  OSBORN, 
Goss,  Bull.  Iowa  Exp.  St.,  XIV  (1891),  p.  175;  ibid.,  XV  (1891),  p.  267.  RILEY, 
Ins.  Life,  IV  (1891),  p.  145;  Bull.  Div.  Ent  U.  S.  Dep.  Agric.,  XXV  (1891),  pp. 
30-31,  fig.  8.  OSBORN,  ibid.,  XXVII  (1892),  pp.  59-60.  RILEY,  Ins.  Life,  IV 
(1892),  pp.  323,  393,  401. 


GRASSHOPPER   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  63 

Acridium  differentiate.    THOMAS,  Trans.  111.  St.  Agric.  Soc.,  V  (1865),  p.  450. 

Cyrtacanthacris  differentialis.  WALKER,  Cat.  Derm.  Salt.  Brit.  Mus.,  IV 
(1870),  p.  610.  THOMAS,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philad.,  1871  (1871),  p.  149. 

Pezotettix  differentialis.  STAL,  Bih.  k.  Sv.  Vet.-Akad.  Handl.,  V  (1878),  No. 
9,  p.  14.  WEED,  Misc.  Ess.  Econ.  Ent.  111.  (1886),  p.  48.  HUNT,  ibid.  (1886),  pp. 
122-123,  126.  WEED,  Rep.  Ent.  111.,  XV  (1889),  p.  40.  GARMAN,  Orth.  Ky.  (1894), 
pp.  4,  8. 

Melanoplus  differentialis.  BRUNER,  Bull.  Washb.  Coll.,  I  (1885),  p.  139; 
ibid.,  I  (1886),  p.  200.  RILEY,  Rep.  U.  S.  Ent.,  1885  (1886),  p.  233.  COQUILLETT, 
ibid.,  1885  (1886),  pp.  295,  297.  BRUNER,  Bull.  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dep.  Agric.,  XIII 
(1887),  p.  33;  Rep.  Ent.  Nebr.  Bd.  Agric.,  1888  (1888),  p.  88,  fig.  4.  COMSTOCK, 
Intr.  Ent.  (1888),  pp.  108,  111,  fig.  100.  SMITH,  Bull.  N.  J.  Exp.  St.,  K.  (1890),  p. 
41.  BRUNER,  Bull.  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dep.  Agric.,  XXII  (1890),  p.  104.  BLATCH- 
LEY,  Can.  Ent.,  XXIII  (1891),  p.  99.  BRUNER,  ibid.,  XXIII  (1891),  p.  193;  Ins. 
Life,  III  (1891),  p.  229.  WEBSTER,  ibid.,  Ill  (1891),  p.  300.  BRUNER,  ibid  ,  IV 
(1891),  p.  22;  Rep.  Ent.  Soc.  Ont.,  XXII  (1891),  p.  48;  Bull.  Div.  Ent.  U.  S. 
Dep.  Agric.,  XXIII  (1891),  p.  14.  OSBORN,  ibid.,  XXIII  (1891),  p.  59.  BRUNER, 
Rep.  St.  Bd.  Agric.  Nebr.,  1891  (1891),  pp.  243,  307,  fig.  84.  McNEiLL,  Psyche, 
VI  (1891),  p.  74.  SMITH,  Bull.  N.  J.  Exp.  St.,  XC  (1892),  pp.  4,  31,  pi.  i.  RILEY, 
Ins.  Life,  IV  (1892),  p.  393.  KELLOGG,  ibid.,  V  (1892),  p.  116.  WEED,  Can.  Ent., 
XXIV  (1892),  p.  278.  OSBORN,  Proc.  Iowa  Acad.  Sc.,  I,  Pt.  ii  (1892),  p.  118.  KEL- 
LOGG, Inj.  Ins.  Kans.  (1892),  p.  42,  figs.  22,  23a.  BRUNER,  Bull.  Div.  Ent.  U.  S. 
Dep.  Agric.,  XXVII  (1892),  pp.  32-,33;  ibid.,  XXVIII  (1893),  pp.  15-17,  fig.  5; 
ibid.,  XXX  (1893),  p.  35.  OSBORN,  ibid.,  XXX  (1893),  p.  47.  BRUNER,  Publ.  Nebr. 
Acad.  Sc.,  Ill  (1893),  p.  27;  Rep.  Nebr.  St.  Bd.  Agric.,  1893  (1893),  p.  461,  fig.  103. 
OSBORN,  Ins.  Life,  V  (1893),  pp.  323-324;  Papers  Iowa  Ins.  (1893),  p.  58.  BRUNER, 
Ins.  Life,  VI  (1893),  p.  34.  OSBORN,  ibid.,  VI  (1893),  pp.  80-81.  BRUNER,  Rep. 
St.  Hort.  Soc.  Nebr.,  1894  (1894),  pp.  1&3,  204,  fig.  67;  Bull.  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dep. 
Agric.,  XXXII  (1894),  p.  12;  Nebr.  St.  Hort.  Rep.,  1895  (1895),  p.  69;  Nebr.  St. 
Ag.  Rep.,  1896,  pp.  120,  121,  figs.  20,  21.  SCUDDER,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol. 
XX,  pp.  349-354,  Pt.  xxiii,  figs.  3,  4,  1895  (1897).  SNOW  and  HUNTER,  Bull.  Dept. 
Ent.  Univ.  Kans.  Oct.  1897,  pp.  9, 10,  pi.  11,  fig.  4, 1897.  LUGGER,  3d  Rep.  of  Ent. 
of  Minn,  for  1897  (1898),  pp.  204-206,  figs.  130,  131. 

TECHNICAL   DESCRIPTION.* 

The  largest  of  our  species  of  Melanopli,  and  heavy  bodied;  excepting  the  hind 
legs  and  the  lateral  lobes  of  the  pronotuin,  the  general  color  is  a  nearly  uniform 
brownish  testaceous,  becoming  paler  testaceous  in  specimens  from  arid  regions: 
in  those  from  Nebraska,  Kansas  and  Colorado  it  is  sometimes  a  blackish  green, 
while  in  those  from  Illinois  and  Indiana  it  is  often  of  a  dark  brownish  green. 
The  head  has  sometimes  a  pair  of  dusky,  divergent  stripes,  passing  from  the  pos- 
terior corners  of  the  fastigium  backward  across  the  vertex,  and  when  these  are 
present  there  are  often  other  but  irregular  streaks  of  similar  tint  on  the  genag  and 
clouds  over  parts  of  the  face ;  the  vertex  is  gently  arched,  more  gently  in  the  female 
than  in  the  male,  with  a  broad  interval  between  the  eyes,  the  fastigium  broadly 
and  not  very  deeply  impressed;  frontal  costa  broad  but  narrower  than  the  inter- 
space between  the  eyes,  percurrent,  equal  except  for  a  slight  expansion  be- 
low, broadly  and  shallowly  sulcate  below  (and  .including)  the  ocellus,  punc- 
tate; eyes  moderately  prominent,  short,  not  a  great  deal  longer  than  broad: 
antennae  fulvo- testaceous,  nearly  twice  as  long  (male)  or  fully  half  as  long 
again  (female)  as  the  pronotum.  Pronotum  subequal,  the  metazona  ex- 

*S.  H.  Scudder,  in  Proc.  Nat.  Mus.  Vol.  XX,  pp.  350-352. 


64  TECHNICAL    DESCRIPTION. 

panding  somewhat,  the  disk  of  the  prozona  sometimes  ( but  not  always )  very 
feebly  tumid,  the  front  margin  feebly  convex,  the  hind  margin  obtusely  and 
roundly  angulate,  more  obtusely  in  specimens  from  the  Pacific  coast  than  in 
others,  the  median  carina  distinct  and  sharp  on  the  metazona,  less  prominent  but 
distinct  on  the  anterior  half  of  the  prozom,  still  less  distinct  (occasionally  sub- 
obsolete)  between  the  sulci;  prozona  subquadrate  in  both  sexes,  smooth,  divided 
in  the  middle,  and  barely  before  the  middle  of  the  posterior  half,  by  sulci,  the 
principal  sulcus  bent  forward  in  the  middle  by  the  posterior  emargination  of  the 
prozona,  the  metazona  plane  finely  subruguloso-punctate ;  lateral  lobes  nearly  ver- 
tical, separated  from  the  disl  by  a  well-rounded  angle  nowhere  forming  distinct 
lateral  carinae,  marked  next  the  upper  limit  on  the  proxoua  by  broken  blackish 
patches,  frequently  reduced  to  a  pair  of  short,  oblique  black  dashes,  one  in  either 
longitudinal  half  of  the  prozona,  each  in  a  clearer  field,  and  also  by  the  black- 
ening of  the  sulci  in  this  region.  They  are  sometimes  accompanied  by  slender, 
oblique,  parallel  black  lines  lower  down,  the  hinder  the  lower;  the  pleural  incis- 
ures  are  also  heavily  marked  in  black.  Prosternal  spine  rather  long,  conical  as 
seen  from  the  side,  bluntly  cylindrical  as  seen  from  in  front,  a  very  little  retrorse. 
Tegmina  at  least  reaching  (female)  or  distinctly  surpassing  (male)  the  hind 
femora,  absolutely  free  from  maculation,  the  narrowest  apical  portion  about  half 
as  broad  as  the  broadest  subbasal  portion ;  wings  pellucid  or  ( in  darkest  forms ) 
very  feebly  infumated,  feebly  and  narrowly  opaque  along  the  costal  margin,  the 
veins  and  cross-veins  mostly  brownish  fuscous.  Fore  and  middle  femora  of 
male  heavily  bullate,  the  hind  femora  stout  and  rather  short,  moderately 
tumid,  generally  fulvo- testaceous,  sometimes  flavo  -  testaceous  beneath,  the 
outer  face  with  alternate,  fulvo-testaceous  and  black,  narrow,  equal  fish-bone 
markings,  the  black  rarely  interrupted  in  the  middle,  the  upper  inner  face 
with  small  basal  and  large  median  and  postmedian  black  patches,  the  gen- 
icular  arc  black  on  both  inner  and  outer  sides;  hind  tibiae  yellow  or  ful- 
vous (occasionally  in  California  bright  coral  red),  with  a  postbasal  narrow 
black  annulus  (in  dark  specimens  more  or  less  infuscated  beyond  it),  the 
spines  black  to  their  very  base,  ten  to  eleven,  rarely  twelve,  in  number  in  the 
outer  series.  Extremity  of  male  abdomen  heavily  clavate,  the  supra-anal  plate 
subclypeate,  obtusely  angulate  at  apex,  the  margins  feebly  and  broadly  elevated 
and  the  median  portion  correspondingly  elevated  and  bearing  on  its  summit  a 
moderately  shallow,  longitudinal  sulcus,  tolerably  broad  and  subequal  on  the 
basal  half,  narrowing  and  with  falling  walls  apically;  furcula  completely  absent 
or  indicated  only  by  a  thickening  of  the  last  dorsal  segment  at  their  proper  posi- 
tion: cerci  very  large  and  coarse,  laminate,  boot-shaped,  the  basal  half  subequal, 
punctate  and  straight,  beyond  expanding  and  at  the  same  time  feebly  bifurcate, 
the  upper  fork  as  long  and  more  than  half  as  broad  as  the  base,  feebly  invurved, 
strongly  upcurved,  apically  tapering  slightly  and  well  rounded,  the  lower  fork  at 
right  angles  to  it,  forming  only  a  rounded,  downward  and  posteriorly  projecting 
lobe,  so  that  the  apical  margin  of  the  whole  is  deeply  and  roundly  emarginate 
below,  the  whole  surpassing  a  little  the  supra-anal  plate;  infracercal  plates 
wholly  obscured;  subgenital  plate  short  and  broad,  scarcely  so  broad  apically  as 
long:  the  apical  margin  thickened,  but  hardly  otherwise  either  elevated  or  pro- 
longed, entire ;  upper  valve  of  ovipositor  abruptly  upturned  apically  and  sharp 
acuminate,  the  upper  outer  carina  feebly  serrate. 

Length  of  body,  male  39  mm.,  female  41  mm. ;  antennae,  male  18  mm.,  female 
16  mm.;  tegmina,  male  32  mm.,  female  34.5  mm.;  hind  femora,  male  20  mm., 
female  23  mm.  Some  specimens,  especially  from  the  north  (Illinois,  e.  g.),  are 
hardly  more  than  half  this  size. 


PART  II. 
ALFALFA  AND  BEES. 


INTRODUCTION. 


TN  industry,  productivity,  adaptability,  and  utility,  the  class  Insecta 
produces  non  e  superior  to  the  honey-bee.  The  head  secretes  a  lactic 
fluid;  the  tongue  collects  nectar;  the  honey  stomach  begins  the  trans- 
formation of  nectar  into  honey;  the  abdominal  plates  manufacture  wax, 
and  the  posterior  extremity  is  the  seat  of  the  defensive  organ,  the 
gland  of  which  secretes  formic  acid.  Every  available  bit  of  space  is 
taxed  to  produce  its  required  quota  of  valuable  material. 

In  the  economy  of  nature,  the  bee  is  depended  upon  to  care  for 
itself  and  its  offspring.  Should  it  be  considered  a  source  of  profit, 
intelligent  management  must  be  added  to  secure  margins;  and  it 
can  be  safely  said  the  depth  of  these  margins  is  directly  proportionate 
to  the  amount  of  time,  thought  and  attention  invested.  This  super- 
vision does  not  consist  alone  in  the  manipulation  of  the  hive  and  its 
occupants,  but  includes,  as  well,  provision  for  requisite  pasturage 
from  which  ample  supplies  may  be  gathered. 

It  has  been  deemed  expedient  to  place  in  this  connection  a  treatise 
upon  practical  methods  in  the  manipulation  of  bees.  "A  Year  writh 
the  Bees"  has  been  ably  prepared  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Duff,  of  Larned,  Kan., 
who  has  devoted  his  attention  almost  exclusively  to  bees  and  beekeep- 
ing for  the  past  thirty  years.  His  early  experience  was  gained  in 
Ohio.  This  enables  him  to  speak  advisedly  upon  methods  peculiarly 
adapted  to  Kansas.  Mr.  Duff,  however,  needs  no  introduction  to  the 
apiarists  of  Kansas,  since  he  has  conducted  for  years  the  apiary  de- 
partment of  the  Kansas  Farmer,  and  is  a  regular  correspondent  upon 
apiculture  for  a  number  of  other  leading  journals. 

During  the  past  summer  the  writer  was  placed  in  an  excellent 
laboratory,  the  field,  for  observation  and  study  of  alfalfa  as  a  honey 
plant,  and  the  action  of  the  bees  thereon.  Many  apiaries  in  the  alfalfa 
region  were  visited,  observations  made  upon  the  conduct  of  bees 
toward  alfalfa  grown  under  varied  conditions,  and  correspondence  car- 
ried on  with  leading  apiarists  from  all  parts  of  the  state.  The  quali- 
ties of  alfalfa  honey  have  also  been  chemically  compared  with  the 
other  leading  varieties  of  honey,  by  Dr.  E.  C.  Franklin,  of  the  de- 
partment of  organic  chemistry,  a  well-known  authority  upon  sugar 
analysis.  Doctor  Franklin  was  assisted  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Swayze,  an  ad- 
vanced student  of  that  department. 

(67) 


68  VARIETIES   OF    BEES. 

The  pages  following  show  that  alfalfa,  under  Kansas  conditions, 
produces  a  quality  and  flow  of  honey  surpassed  by  no  other  plant. 
A  few  speak  with  great  favor  of  Alsike  clover,  but  the  observations 
upon  this  clover  have  in  each  case  been  made  upon  small  plats  of 
ground.  The  plant  is  by  no  means  generally  cultivated  in  the  state. 

The  greatest  enthusiasm  manifested  upon  apiculture  is  found  in 
localities  where  large  areas  of  alfalfa  exist.  The  wives  and  daughters 
of  many  agriculturists  and  of  some  merchants,  find  pleasure  and 
profit  in  caring  for  bees.  Many  keep  bees  simply  for  the  table  lux- 
ury derived. 

The  bees  gather  the  nectar  from  the  blossom,  and  at  the  same  time 
insure  the  formation  of  seed  where  the  blossom  was.  The  results 
noted  show  that  the  seed  crop  of  alfalfa  upon  which  bees  worked 
was  66 1  per  cent,  greater  than  the  crops  taken  from  alfalfa  dependent 
upon  other  insects  for  pollination. 

Many  flowers  cease  to  secrete  nectar  after  being  pollinated.  Alfalfa 
continues  to  secrete  nectar  until  the  blossom  begins  to  wither.  The 
only  objection  found  with  alfalfa  is  the  not  infrequent  removal  of  the 
plant  for  hay  during  the  blooming  stage.  It  is  no  unusual  thing, 
however,  to  find  within  range  of  the  apiary  several  thousand  acres  of 
alfalfa.  Here,  the  second  crop  is  in  bloom  before  the  first  is  all  in  the 
swath,  and  this  continual  blossoming  places  the  coveted  nectar  before 
the  bee  from  the  15th  of  June  until  the  middle  of  October. 

This  publication  is  sent  forth  with  a  desire  that  the  resources  of 
the  alfalfa  plant  may  receive  the  attention  due  them,  and  that  those 
unacquainted  with  the  honey-bee  may  become  familiar  with  its  good 
qualities,  may  appreciate  the  luxuries  of  the  hive,  and  find  in  the  bee 
not  only  a  source  of  profit,  but  also  a  work  of  pleasure. 

VARIETIES  OF  BEES. 

The  common  name,  bee,  is  applied  to  many  forms  of  the  order 
Hymenoptera.  It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  work,  however, 
to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  genera  of  bees  within  the  order,  but 
simply  to  confine  the  treatise  to  the  species  technically  known  as  Apis 
melliftca,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  honey-bee. 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  name  honey-bee  is  sufficiently 
familiar  to  require  no  further  definition.  Under  this  head,  however, 
we  find  a  number  of  kinds  of  bees;  some  speak  of  them  as  varieties, 
others  as  distinct  species.  It  will  suffice  for  our  purpose,  at  present, 
to  consider  all  as  varieties  of  the  one  species,  Apis  mellifica,  and  to 
refer  to  each  variety  by  the  name  popularly  known. 

The  varieties  of  bees  which  have  been  brought  to  this  country,  for 
the  honey-bee  is  originally  a  foreigner,  are  the  brown  or  German  bee,, 


VARIETIES   OF   BEES.  69 

the  Italian,  the  Egyptian,  the  Cyprian,  the  Syrian,  the  Palestine,  the 
Carniolan,  and  the  Tunisian.  Believing  that  the  interest  of  the  bee- 
keepers in  Kansas  will  be  centered  around  the  German  bees,  the 
Italians,  Carniolans,  and  Cyprians,  I  will  speak  in  detail  of  these  only. 

GERMAN   BEES. 

The  German  or  brown  bee  was  the  first  bee  brought  into  this 
country.  In  the  early  settlements  of  North  America  these  bees,  after 
introduction,  went  in  advance  of  the  settlers,  notifying  the  Indians  of 
the  encroachments  of  civilization.  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  his  history  of 
Virginia,  says  that  the  natives  called  the  honey-bee  "the  white  man's 
fly";  so  the  German  bee  not  only  established  the  first  honey  factories 
in  the  United  States,  but  also  the  first  institutions  of  civilization  in 
many  localities. 

This  bee  is  a  native  of  middle  and  northern  Europe.  The  species 
now  among  us  is  referred  to  as  the  black  or  brown  bee.  The  charac- 
teristics of  this  bee  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  It  has  a  highly 
irritable  temper ;  by  some  it  is  termed  cross,  in  that  it  not  infrequently 
leaves  the  hive  to  attack  a  passer-by.  This  disposition  varies  some- 
what with  different  strains.  It  is  not  a  good  neighbor,  but  frequently 
quarrels  with  others  in  the  bee  village.  When  long  under  manipula- 
tion it  is  liable  to  stampede,  if  such  a  term  may  be  used,  and  the  re- 
sults of  this  turmoil  may  be,  at  least,  disagreeable.  It  is  not  the  best 
defender  against  robbers,  it  is  slow  to  learn  a  new  locality,  rather 
slow  in  building  up  in  the  spring,  easily  discouraged.  It  is  a  good 
honey  gatherer,  flies  early,  ranks  high  as  a  comb  builder.  For  those 
who  market  comb  honey,  this  bee  furnishes  artistically  white-capped 
comb.  Its  irritable  disposition  frequently  overshadows  its  commend- 
able qualities  and  loses  it  many  friends  among  the  apiarists. 

CARNIOLAN   BEES. 

The  Carniolans  may  be  considered  the  other  extreme  in  disposi- 
tion. They  are  notably  gentle.  In  color  they  resemble  the  German 
bee ;  in  structure,  however,  they  are  larger  and  more  robust.  The 
rows  of  dense  silvery  white  hairs  on  posterior  portion  of  each  of  the 
abdominal  segments  mark  these  bees  distinctively.  This  bee  seems 
to  obtain  the  good  qualities  of  the  German  bee  and  none  of  the  bad. 
It  is  a  good  comb  builder — makes  beautifully  white-capped  comb 
This  bee  uses  little  propolis,  winters  well,  is  long-lived.  While  it  is  a 
hard-working  bee,  a  great  accumulator  of  honey,  it  tends  to  swarm 
frequently.  This  objectionable  feature,  however,  can  be  controlled 
by  the  intelligent  apiarist. 


VARIETIES   OF   BEES.  71 

ITALIAN   BEES. 

The  United  States  department  of  agriculture  in  1860  introduced 
these  bees  from  Italy,  and  through  the  energy  of  this  department 
they  have  been  widely  spread.  For  this  reason  they  are  well  and 
favorably  known. 

The  chief  distinction  in  the  appearance  of  this  bee  is  the  color. 
The  hairs  spoken  of  previously  are  present,  but  are  yellow ;  the  first 
three  segments  of  the  abdomen  are  for  the  most  part  tawny  yellow. 
Leather  or  tan  colored  is  a  term  sometimes  used  for  this  shade  upon 
this  bee.  The  first  rhag  of  the  abdomen  faces  toward  the  front  and 
the  band  upon  this  may  be  overlooked.  The  second  segment  is 
smooth  yellow  in  front ;  this  is  hairless,  because  it  passes  beneath  the 
segment  in  front  of  it  when  the  body  contracts.  The  central  portion 
of  this  segment  is  covered  with  yellow  hairs  and  the  body  at  this 
point  is  yellow.  The  back  portion  of  .this  segment  is  glossy  black 
and  covered  with  very  fine  hairs.  The  markings  of  the  third  ring  are 
the  same  as  the  second.  The  fourth  and  filth  segments  are  black,  but 
covered  with  yellowish  hairs.  The  sixth  segment  is  black,  and  bears 
very  few  hairs.  The  queens  vary  in  color.  The  one  shown  on  plate 
ii  (page  70)  was  a  beautiful  queen,  abdomen  yellow,  with  small 
brown  spots  upon  upper  median  line  of  each  segment  of  abdomen. 
The  drones  are  smaller  than  the  drones  of  the  black  bee  and  darker 
than  the  Italian  workers. 

These  bees  are  usually  gentle,  bear  manipulation,  and  remain  firmly 
upon  the  comb  when  this  is  being  handled.  They  fight  hard,  long 
and  successfully  for  their  homes;  but  this  strength  and  this  tenacity 
are  sometimes  turned  in  the  wrong  direction,  and  these  same  defend- 
ers become  bold  and  persistent  robbers  of  others'  gains.  They  repel 
the  moth  with  success.  These  bees  are  hard  workers,  at  it  early  and 
late,  excellent  honey  collectors,  but  care  is  required  to  avoid  too  great 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  bees  in  rearing  young  with  the  surplus 
stores. 

CYPRIAN    BEES. 

A  few  colonies  of  Cyprians  are  to  be  found  in  this  state,  but  not 
in  representative  numbers  nor  in  numbers  sufficient  to  draw  conclu- 
sions upon  them  in  this  climate.  Their  temper  is  anything  but  cheer- 
ful when  thoroughly  aroused ;  their  use  of  their  weapon  of  defense  is 
excelled  by  none  of  the  varieties  previously  mentioned.  This  fault 
has  prevented  their  general  adoption.  This  variety  has  the  largest 
honey  record  per  hive  for  a  single  season.  They  winter  well  and  are 
good  defenders.  Their  comb  is  better  for  extracted  than  for  comb 
honey.  They  fill  the  cups  so  full  that  cap  and  honey  touch,  giving 
the  comb  a  watery  appearance.  They  build  comb  well.  They  are 


72  SOCIAL   ECONOMY. 

smaller  than  the  German  bee.  Orange  bands  are  apparent  upon  the 
first  three  abdominal  segments.  They  are  exceeding  thrifty,  and  are 
said  to  thrive  where  others  fail  entirely. 

A  statement  of  the  qualities  of  these  bees  has  been  given  without 
an  attempt  to  point  out  the  one  best  adapted  for  this  region.  The 
Italians  are  justly  popular.  The  black  bee  is  still  with  us.  The 
Carniolans  and  Cyprians  are  comparative  strangers  within  our  bor- 
ders. If  an  opinion  were  asked,  it  would  be  that  the  Italians  and  Car- 
niolans will  merit  every  attention  in  this  locality.  Hybrids  are  being 
used  to  some  extent,  but  a  discussion  of  the  various  objects  sought 
and  qualities  attained  by  this  process  will  hardly  apply  here. 

SOCIAL  ECONOMY  OF  THE  HIVE. 

This  communistic  society  contains  three  divisions,  unequal  in 
number  but  of  equal  importance  in  function.  The  colony  is  com- 
posed of  a  queen,  the  impregnated  female,  the  drones  or  male  element, 
and  the  workers  or  undeveloped  females. 

THE  QUEEN.  Before  her  true  function  was  known  she  was  termed 
the  "king  bee"  on  account  of  size.  This,  the  most  attractive  person- 
age in  the  hive,  is  more  frequently  ruled  than  ruler.  She  receives 
every  attention  that  can  be  bestowed  upon  her  by  her  attendants,  the 
workers,  and  well  they  may  caress  her,  for  around  her  centers  the  ex- 
istence of  the  hive.  The  difference  between  a  queen  and  a  worker  is 
caused  by  the  difference  in  the  amount  and  the  character  of  the  food 
given  each  in  the  earlier  stages  of  development.  As  Cheshire  would 
say,  the  workers  are  weaned  and  the  queen  nurses  during  her  lifetime. 

Queens  are  developed  in  two  ways,  each  under  different  circum- 
stances. In  the  natural  procedure  the  queen  cell  is  made,  the  fertil- 
ized egg  placed  therein,  and  the  young  larva  fed,  instead  of  the 
bee-bread  intended  for  bees,  royal  jelly,  a  substance  resembling 
blanc-mange,  a  food  given  forth  from  an  active  gland  in  the  head 
of  the  nurse  bees.  Should  the  colony  be  deprived  of  its  queen,  the 
workers  hasten  the  appearance  of  a  new  queen  by  tearing  down  the 
partition  walls  between  three  surrounding  cells,  taking  the  contents 
away,  and  leaving  one  egg  to  be  fed  for  the  throne.  The  egg 
hatches  in  about  three  days  after  being  laid.  About  six  days  are 
spent  in  the  worm  or  larval  state,  then  seven  in  the  quiescent  or  pupal 
state.  In  some  cases  the  workers  choose  a  cell  containing  a  larva  for 
the  production  of  an  emergency  queen.  If  the  workers  choose  a 
worm  as  a  princess,  the  time  from  formation  of  cell  to  emergence  of 
queen  will  be  shorter  than  the  full  sixteen  days  a  number  of  days 
equal  to  the  age  of  larva,  including  egg  period.  Cheshire  has  shown 
that  emergency  queens  are  not  equal  to  queens  produced  in  the  natu- 


SOCIAL   ECONOMY.  73 

ral  way.  He  further  states  that  it  is  highly  improbable  that  the  bees 
can  develop  a  queen  from  worker  larvae  which  had  begun  to  be  fed 
bee-bread.  The  large  queen  cell  extending  out  from  the  comb,  fre- 
quently hanging  down  not  unlike  a  peanut  in  shape,  is  easily  recog- 
nized. Queen  cells  are  illustrated  in  Mr.  Duff's  article,  further  on. 

A  few  days  after  maturity  the  virgin  queen  leaves  the  hive  on  her 
marriage  flight.  She  is  met  high  in  the  air  by  a  drone  and  fertiliza- 
tion takes  place.  She  returns  to  her  hive  and  there  remains  with  the 
colony.  The  act  of  pairing  takes  place  but  once  in  the  lifetime  of  a 
queen. 

About  two  days  after  impregnation  the  queen  begins  laying.  If  a 
very  fertile  queen,  she  will  deposit  from  two  to  three  thousand  eggs 
daily.  While  the  worker  exhausts  itself  and  dies  in  a  few  weeks,  or 
months  at  the  most,  the  queen  is  of  greatest  service  to  her  colony  for 
two  years,  and  while  she  will  live  longer  it  is  not  advisable  to  retain 
her  beyond  that  time. 

THE  DRONE  is  developed  from  the  unfertilized  eggs  placed  in  cells 
somewhat  larger  than  worker  cells.  They  develop  in  about  twenty- 
four  days,  remaining  three  in  the  egg,  six  in  the  larval,  fifteen  in  the 
pupal  stage.  These  are  reared  in  larger  numbers  during  the  swarm- 
ing season.  This  is  nature's  provision  for  the  marriage  flight  of  the 
queen.  Were  the  drones  few  in  number,  it  would  be  very  probable 
that  many  queens  would  fail  to  meet  a  mate  in  the  air.  As  it  is,  many 
drones  are  in  mid-air  searching  for  mates  and  the  fertilization  of  the 
queen  is  assured. 

The  fact  that  the  drones  are  reared  from  unfertilized  eggs,  the  un- 
mixed blood  of  the  queen,  and  that  workers  are  short-lived,  make  the 
introduction  of  a  queen  into  the  hive  a  matter  of  much  importance. 
For  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  with  the  introduction  of  a  new  queen, 
new  drones  of  her  exact  strain  soon  appear.  If  the  queen  has  been 
tested,  and  found  to  be  purely  mated,  then  the  queens  reared  from 
the  eggs  will  be  pure,  and  these  will  now  mate  with  pure-bred  drones 
and  their  progeny  will  be  a  pure  strain.  The  workers  of  the  queen 
introduced  will  be  pure  bred  and  will  shortly  replace  the  native  work- 
ers, who  will  have  lived  out  their  existence. 

This  refers  to  a  single  colony.  It  must  be  noted  in  this  connec- 
tion, however,  that  in  an  apiary  one  colony  of  an  inferior  strain  may 
contaminate  many  other  colonies  in  a  single  season  by  sending  forth 
drones  to  breed  with  the  pure  queens  of  the  other  hives  in  the  apiary. 

THE  WORKER.  This  is  the  bee  familiar  to  all  of  us ;  the  one  re- 
spected for  its  business  air,  as  well  as  its  powers  for  defense.  The 
writer  has  realized  the  industry  and  activity  of  this  marvelous  little 


74  BEE   PRODUCTS. 

honey  gatherer  when  endeavoring  to  take  its  photograph  while  it  was 
at  work  upon  some  of  its  favorite  food  plants. 

The  number  of  individuals  in  a  good  colony  ranges  from  20,000  to 
80,000,  according  to  the  time  of  the  year.  The  number  can  never  ex- 
ceed the  laying  powers  of  the  queen  for  the  season,  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
equals  that  number.  Workers  mature  in  about  twenty-one  days,  spent 
in  the  following  stages :  Three  days  in  the  egg,  five  in  the  larvae  state, 
and  thirteen  as  a  pupa  or  chrysalis. 

The  division  of  labor  among  the  workers  is  discussed  in  another 
portion  of  this  work.  A  young  bee  is  easily  known  by  its  pale  color 
and  lack  of  strength.  In  a  few  days  it  grows  larger,  develops  strength 
and  color,  and  is  well  covered  with  hair.  The  aged  worker  is  known 
by  its  tattered  wings  and  bald  body.  The  average  life  of  a  bee  in  the 
working  season  is  about  five  weeks. 

BEE  PRODUCTS. 

The  bee  is  capable  of  bringing  to  his  hive  four  things :  Bee-bread, 
propolis  or  bee-glue,  royal  jelly,  and  honey.  In  addition  to  these,  the 
bee  carries,  to  be  used  in  case  of  defense,  a  gland  filled  with  poison, 
consisting  chiefly  of  formic  acid.  The  larva  has  facilities  for  spin- 
ning silk. 

Bee-bread  is  the  pollen  gathered  from  flowers,  brought  in  upon 
the  so-called  pollen  baskets  of  the  hind  legs,  and  placed,  generally,  in 
worker  cells,  packed  down,  then  covered  with  honey  and  the  cells 
sealed.  This  food  is  indispensable  for  the  rearing  of  young  brood. 
Huber  demonstrated  that  young  bees  could  not  be  reared  without  this 
pollen,  though  this  without  honey  will  not  support  mature  bees. 

P/'Opolis,  or  bee-glue,  is  a  resinous  substance  gathered  from  the 
buds  and  limbs  of  trees.  The  bees  use  it  to  seal  over  cavities  or  un- 
necessary openings  in  their  hives.  In  the  heat  of  summer  this  re- 
mains soft  and  is  used  by  the  bee-moth  as  a  receptacle  for  eggs. 
Hives  should  therefore  have  as  few  cavities  as  possible,  and  a  poor 
quality  of  lumber,  or  boards  partly  split,  should  be  avoided  in  the 
choice  of  material  for  hives. 

Royal  jelly  is  a  milk-like  substance  secreted  in  a  gland  within 
the  head  of  the  nurse  bees.  This  is  fed  to  all  bees — workers,  drones 
and  queens  alike.  The  workers  and  drones,  however,  are  favored  with 
this  highly  nitrogenous  food  during  the  first  days  of  their  larval  ex- 
istence, only  until  their  stomachs 'become  ready  to  digest  the  bee- 
bread.  The  embryo  queens  are  more  favored  and  this  royal  jelly  is 
lavished  upon  them  during  their  development.  According  to  Ches- 
hire it  is  the  food  of  queens  during  their  whole  lifetime. 


BEE    PRODUCTS.  75 

Silk. — The  pupal  cell  is  partially  lined  with  silk.  This  is  spun  from 
glands  in  the  head  of  the  larvae.  These  glands  are  not  used  after  the 
bee  reaches  maturity. 

Wax  is  a  secretion  which  in  the  form  of  plates  appears  on  the  ven- 
tral surface  of  the  second,  third,  fourth  and  fifth  segments  of  the  ab- 
domen.   The  wax  is  primarily  secreted  from  the  blood-cells  as  a  fluid, 
and  becomes  more  firm  when  it  is  transuded  upon  the  abdominal  wax 
pockets  shown  in    the  accompanying  figure  1.     It 
was  erroneously  believed  for  a  long  time  that  wax 
was  pollen  digested  and  then   regurgitated.     It  is 
what  might  be  termed   surplus   energy,  or  a  case 
quite  parallel   to  the   secretion  of   fat  in  animals. 
Young   bees   secrete   wax   well;    old   bees  produce 
littlewax.     The   same  may  be   said   regarding   fat- 
producing  powers  of  young  and  old  animals.     The 
production  of  wax  exhausts  the  strength  of  the  bees, 
and  is  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  stores  of  honey.     The 
bees   intending   to  produce  wax  gorge   themselves 
FIG.  i.   Secretion      with  honey,  and  in  about  twenty-four  hours  after- 
?arged,fromS'liii^s-      ward  wax  begins  to  transude  and  appear  upon  the 
tneW    Bienenzei-      wftx  plateg  of  the  abdoinen.     It  requires  from  ten  to 

sixteen  pounds  of  honey  to  produce  one  pound  of 
wax,  according  to  Langstroth.  Some  authorities  state  greater  weights 
and  some  less.  When  the  amount  of  honey  consumed  is  reckoned,  the 
matter  of  comb  foundation  and  subject  of  care  of  empty  comb  should 
receive  careful  attention. 

Honey. — The  reward  most  coveted  is  expressed  by  this  word.  The 
word  itself  has  a  pleasing  sound.  It  is  the  symbol  of  sweetness.  The 
bee,  bearer  of  this  esteemed  delicacy,  collects  nectar  from  the  nec- 
taries of  flowers  and  sap  from  the  trees — a  little  here,  a  little  there. 
These  fluids  in  their  watery  state  are  taken  into  the  honey  sac  ( pi. 
in),  corresponding  to  the  crop  of  other  insects;  instead  of  passing 
on  into  the  stomach,  the  sweet  fluid  is  retained  here  until  the  hive  is 
reached.  A  reference  to  plate  in  at  this  point  will  make  the  subject 
of  the  honey  sac.  stomach  mouth  and  stomach  sufficiently  clear  for 
the  purpose  of  this  discussion.  The  watery  nectar  of  flowers  and  sap 
of  trees  is  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  either  by  secretion  of 
the  water  from  the  bee's  honey  sac,  or  evaporation  caused  by  heat 
and  currents  of  air  in  the  hive.  These  currents  of  air,  forced  by  the 
fanning  of  bees'  wings  up  through  the  hive  and  over  the  uncapped 
honey,  do  much  toward  ripening  and  removing  unpleasant  (probably 
volatile)  flavors.  Formic  acid  is  found  in  honey ;  the  exact  form  and 
amount  have  not  been  satisfactorily  determined  by  chemists. 


PLATE  III. 

Digestive  system  of  bee,  magnified  ten  times  (after  Cheshire). 
A ,  Horizontal  section  of  body ;  Ip,  labial  palpus ;  wx,  maxilla ;  e, 
eye ;  dv,  dv,  dorsal  vessel ;  r,  ventricles  of  the  same ;  No.  1,  No.  2, 
No.  8,  salivary  gland  systems,  7,  2,  5;  ce,  oesophagus;  pro.t,  pro- 
thorax;  mesa.t,  mesathorax;  mela.t,  metathorax;  </,  g,  ganglia  of 
chief  nerve  chain;  n,  nerves;  hs,  honey  sac;  p,  petaloid  stopper  of 
honey  sac  or  stomach  mouth,  c.  a,  chyle  stomach;  bt,  biliary  or 
malpighian  vessels;  */,  small  intestine;  I,  lamellae  or  gland  plates 
of  colon ;  / /'.  large  intestine. 


BEE    PRODUCTS.  77 

While  attending  the  National  Beekeepers'  Association,  at  Omaha, 
the  writer  was  greatly  impressed  by  the  display  of  the  varieties  of 
honey.  This  publication  being  then  in  course  of  preparation,  Com- 
missioner Whitcomb  and  Superintendent  Stilson,  of  the  department 
of  bee  industries,  very  generously  furnished  five  samples,  from  which 
the  accompanying  photograph  and  chemical  analyses  were  made. 
The  varieties  sent  and  donors  were :  Basswood  ( Tilia  americana ) , 
from  the  apiary  of  L.  D.  Stilson,  York,  Neb.;  knotweed  (Polygonum 
pennsylvanicum),  E.  Whitcomb,  Friend,  Neb.;  white  clover  (Trifo- 
lium  repens),  L.  M.  Whitford,  Arlington,  Neb.;  sweet  clover  (Melli- 
lotus  alba),  L.  D.  Stilson,  York,  Neb.;  alfalfa  and  melon  bloom,  G.  D. 
Swink,  Rocky  Ford,  Colo.  The  alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa)  honey  was 
sent  direct  to  the  department  through  the  kindness  of  Capt.  J.  H. 
Wing,  of  Syracuse,  Kan. 

The  comparative  lights  and  shades  of  these  varieties  of  honey  are 
shown  in  plate  iv,  and  a  careful  analysis  of  the  same  has  been  made 
by  Dr.  E.  C.  Franklin  and  Mr.  J.  C.  Swayze.  Their  results  appear  on 
page  79. 

As  may  be  inferred  from  the  title  of  this  treatise,  the  subject  of 
alfalfa  honey  would  come  under  consideration.  I  can  conceive  of  no 
better  method  of  procedure  than  that  of  comparison,  and  upon  that 
plan  I  have  here  carried  on  the  investigation.  Cheshire's  definition 
of  ideal  honey  is,  "An  ideal  sample  would  have  a  delicate  but  charac- 
teristic aroma,  a  rich  flavor,  leaving  a  distinct  impression  on  the  back 
of  the  palate,  and  would  be  of  a  straw  or  pale  amber  color.  It  should 
possess  perfect  clearness,  and,  as  distinct  from  clearness,  brightness  due 
to  a  high  refractive  index,  with  density  almost  amounting  to  toughness, 
so  that  the  air  beneath  the  cork  should  rise  very  slowly  through  the 
mass  upon  the  inversion  of  the  bottle."  Of  the  six  samples  submitted, 
a  competent  judge  placed  the  alfalfa  honey  as  the  one  most  nearly 
approaching  this  standard.  Especially  was  this  so  with  regard  to  the 
color  and  toughness.  The  six  were  inverted  in  the  tubes,  and  the 
other  five  were  free  from  the  air  bubbles  in  a  short  time,  as  compared 
with  the  alfalfa  sample.  The  color  of  pure  alfalfa  honey  is  certainly 
highly  desirable.  The  six  test-tubes  on  plate  iv,  while  not  showing 
the  exact  tints,  illustrate  the  comparative  degrees  of  light  and  shade. 
They  might  be  said  to  range  from  very  light  straw  (6)  to  dark 
amber  (2).  See  next  page. 

The  tastes  and  flavors,  largely  personal  elements,  are  not  suscepti- 
ble to  chemical  tests  or  verbal  descriptions ;  to  be  illustrated  and  ap- 
preciated they  must  be  experienced. 


vs> 


BEE  PRODUCTS. 


79 


ANALYSES   OF    VARIOUS    KINDS   OF    HONEY. 

By  DR.  E.  C.  FRANKLIN  and  J.  C.  SWAYZE,  Department  Organic  Chemistry, 

University  of  Kansas. 


SAMPLE. 

Polarization. 

Temp.  C. 

Sucrose. 

Reducing 
sugars. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Direct. 

Indirect. 

Basswood  
Knotweed 

-9.9 

-24.2 
-10.3 
-12.3 
-16. 

-14.9 
-29. 
-12.3 
-18.1 
-21. 

23° 
23° 
23° 
23° 
23° 

3.77  % 
3.62  % 
1.54  % 
4.38  % 
3.77  % 

76.92  % 
75.19$ 
76.34$ 
75.76  % 
78.135 

11.31  % 
11.41  % 
7.98  % 
10.00  % 
7.97$ 

.39  % 
.05  % 
.03% 
.05  % 
.05$ 

White  clover  
\lfalfa 

Sweet  clover  

The  above  samples  are  all  pure,  as  is  shown  by  the  different  exam- 
inations. Pure  honey  consists  of  reducing  sugars  (d-glucose  and 
d-frnctose  )  and  non-reducing  sugar  (  sucrose.)  Pure  honey  turns  the 
plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left,  generally  less  than  twenty  divi- 
sions. An  excess  of  this  might  indicate  adulteration  with  invert 
sugar.  This  adulteration  can  be  detected  with  certainty  only  when 
large  quantities  have  been  added.  The  sample  of  knotweed  honey  may 
have  a  slight  excess  of  invert  sugar. 

Dextro  rotation  may  signify  either  an  adulteration  of  glucose  or  a 
normal  amount  of  sucrose.  By  inverting  the  sucrose,  the  presence  of 
glucose  is  proven,  if  it  is  still  dextro  rotatory.  As  none  of  the  samples 
analyzed  were  dextro  rotatory,  there  was  no  adulteration  with  glucose. 

The  sucrose  found  is  in  accordance  with  that  of  pure  honey.  It  is 
determined  by  polarization  before  and  after  inverting.  It  is  also  de- 
termined by  the  Fehling  method.  The  amount  of  reducing  sugar  is 
determined,  the  sucrose  is  then  inverted,  another  titration  is  made,  and 
the  sucrose  found  by  difference.  We  find  that  this  method  gives 
slightly  lower  results  than  the  polariscope  method. 

The  water  and  ash  are  normal.  From  the  results,  it  would  seem 
that  a  little  dust  had  settled  in  the  basswood  honey  and  had  increased 
the  percentage  of  ash. 

COMB  BUILDING.  The  architecture  of  the  hive  furnishes  interesting 
study  for  the  artisan  as  well  as  the  apiarist.  Contrary  to  supposition, 
however,  comb  is  not  constructed  with  geometric  calculation.  Cells  are 
made  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  from  the  wax  secreted.  The  store 
or  honey  cells  are  some  what  irregular  and  frequently  deeper  than 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  IV. — Shades  in  various  kinds  of  honey:  1,  bass- 
wood;  #,  knotweed;  <?,  white  clover;  4,  alfalfa;  5,  sweet  clover;  6,  alfalfa  and 
melon  bloom. 


80 


BEE  PRODUCTS. 


brood  cells.  The  worker  brood  cells  are  the  most  regular,  and  average 
twenty-eight  to  thirty  cells  to  the  square  inch.  The  drone  cells  are 
larger,  and  range  about  eighteen  to  the  square  inch.  The  structure  of 
the  queen  cells  has  been  described  elsewhere. 

THE  STING.  The  accompanying  figure  illustrates  the  structure  of 
sting  and  the  gland  attending  it.  This  weapon  is  brought  into  use, 

not  alone  as  protection 
against  intruders,  such  as 
man,  but  is  much  used 
against  the  unwelcome 
visitors  of  its  own  tribe. 
The  formic  acid  and 
the  other  toxic  element 
probably  present  in  the 
fluid  injected  from  the 
gland  into  the  body  of 
the  one  attacked,  while 
discomfiting  to  us,  is 
quite  deadly  to  bees. 
This  poisonous  fluid  can 
be  secreted  from  the 
blood-cells  of  the  bees, 
but  when  it  is  injected 
into  the  tissues,  by  means 
of  another's  sting,  death 
follows  When  the  honey- 
bee stings  the  human 
flesh  the  sting  generally 
remains,  and  the  bee,  if 
not  killed  before,  dies  on 
account  of  the  wound  caused  by  the  tearing  away  of  the  organs  con- 
nected with  the  sting. 

"The  third  sting  is  composed  of  two  spears  of  a  polished,  chestnut- 
colored,  horny  substance,  which,  supported  by  the  sheath,  makes  a 
very  sharp  weapon.  In  the  act  of  stinging,  the  spears  emerge  from 
the  sheath  about  two-thirds  of  their  length.  Between  them  and  on 
each  of  them  is  a  small  groove  through  which  the  liquid  coming  from 
the  poison-sac  is  ejected  into  the  wound. 

"  Each  spear  of  the  sting  has  about  nine  barbs,  which  are  turned 
back  like  those  of  a  fish-hook  and  prevent  the  sting  from  being  easily 
withdrawn.  When  the  insect  is  prepared  to  sting,  one  of  these  spears, 
having  a  little  longer  point  than  the  other,  first  darts  into  the  flesh, 
and  being  fixed  by  its  foremost  barb,  the  other  strikes  in  also,  and 


FIG.  2.  The  sting  of  the  worker  bee,  and  its  appenda- 
ges. (Enlarged,  from  Girard.)  a.  sting;  6,  poison-sac ; 
c  c,  poison  glands ;  d  d,  secreting  bags. 


ALFALFA    AND    BEES.  81 

they  alternately  penetrate  deeper  and  deeper,  till  they  acquire  a  firm 
hold  of  the  flesh  with  their  barbed  hooks. 

"  The  muscles,  though  invisible  to  the  eye,  are  yet  strong  enough 
to  force  the  sting  to  the  depth  of  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  through  the 
thick  skin  of  a  man's  hand."* 

Various  remedies  are  recommended.  It  is  important  to  scrape  away 
with  the  finger  nail  the  inserted  sting ;  it  should  not  be  taken  away  by 
pinching  it  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  for  this  act  will  force 
all  the  poison  in  the  gland  down  into  the  wound.  The  place  stung 
should  not  be  rubbed,  since  this  increases  circulation  and  diffuses  the 
poison  over  larger  surface,  consequently  making  the  pain  greater. 
This  poison  will  mix  freely  with  water,  so  that  if  the  affected  parts 
are  placed  in  cold  water  the  pain  will  be  greatly  allayed.  Ammonia 
will  neutralize  the  acid,  and  its  use  is  recommended. 

While  attending  the  National  Beekeepers'  Association,  at  Omaha, 
the  writer  was  much  interested  in  the  discussion  upon  the  medicinal 
properties  of  the  sting.  It  was  strongly  advocated  by  some  that  the 
sting  of  the  bee,  directed  toward  the  seat  of  rheumatic  pains,  would 
give  permanent  relief.  It  was  the  observation  of  others,  based  upon 
experiments,  that  no  permanent  value  could  be  attached  to  the  me- 
dicinal properties  of  the  sting.  In  each  case  the  speakers  spoke  from 
experience,  the  speaker  being  the  subject  of  the  experimentation. 

METHOD  OF  FERTILIZATION  OF  THE  ALFALFA  BLOSSOM. 

The  location  of  the  coveted  nectar  at  the  base  of  the  flower,  the 
action  of  the  tongue  of  the  bee  and  the  work  of  the  hairs  under  the 
head  and  upon  the  breast  in  placing  the  pollen  upon  the  stigma  are 

shown  in  figure  3,  and  also  in  figure  4  at 
~b  4-.  The  flower  gives  material  aid,  by 
causing  the  stamens  and  pistils  to  spring 
up  and  strike  the  insect. 

A  part  of  Miiller's  observations  upon 
this  point  are :   If  in  a  young  flower  we 
cut  through  the  claw  of  the  carina.  the 
column  springs  upward  to  some  extent, 
FIG.  3.  (Original.)  Pollination        carrying  with  it  the  carina  and  ala3.     If  in 

another  unexploded  flower,  we  carefully 

cut  through  one  of  the  digitiform  processes  of*  the  alre,  the  parts  re- 
main motionless ;  but  on  cutting  the  processes  of  the  other  side,  ex- 
plosion at  once  follows.  The  pouched  processes  of  the  carina  ( fig. 
4,  b  3  and  c3)  are  thus  sufficient  to  hold  the  column  down  without 

*  Langstroth. 
—6 


82  ALFALFA   AND    BEES. 

the  aid  of  the  processes  of  the  alse  (c2),  nor  are  the  latter  sufficient 
after  section  of  the  carina.  Explosion  can  therefore  be  effected 
equally  well  by  separating  the  anterior  pouches,  by  separating  the 
digitiforra  processes,  or,  finally,  by  depressing  the  ala3  and  carina. 

If  an  insect  inserts  its  proboscis  in  the  middle  line  between  the  an- 
terior pouches  and  the  digitiform  processes,  or  if  it  stands  upon  the 
alse  and  thrusts  its  head  in  the  middle  line  under  the  vexillum,  in 
either  case  explosion  follows.  The  stigma  ( c  5}  projects  beyond  the 
anthers,  and,  therefore,  is  the  first  to  strike  the  under  surface  of  the 
bee's  body  or  proboscis  ;  an  instant  later  the  anthers  come  in  contact 
with  an  area  close  around  the  spot  that  the  stigma  touched,  dusting  it 
with  fresh  pollen.  The  first  flower  that  the  insect  visits  is,  of  course, 
not  cross-fertilized,  but  as  the  bee  withdraws  from  the  flower,  self- 
fertilization  inevitably  occurs.  Self-fertilization  is  undoubtedly  effi- 
cient, for  Hildebrand  has  shown  that  flowers  which  wither  unexploded 
when  insects  are  excluded  produce  seed  by  self-fertilization.  The 
same  author  finds  two  imperfections  in  the  mechanism.  One  is  the 
possibility  of  the  insect  securing  the  nectar  without  exploding  the 
flower ;  the  other  is  that  the  flower  continues  to  secrete  honey  after 
it  has  been  fertilized.  This  certainly  is  much  in  its  favor  as  a  honey 
plant,  though  somewhat  against  the  visitation  of  other  unfertilized 
flowers. 

In  the  case  of  the  alfalfa,  however,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  stigma 
of  the  ovary  is  higher  than  the  pollen  producing  anthers,  so  that  the 
grains  of  pollen  may  all  drop  to  the  base  of  the  flower  and  the  ovary 
go  unfertilized;  such  being  the  case,  no  seed  would  be  formed.  Small 
forms  resembling  seed  might  be  found  within  the  ovary  at  maturity, 
but  these,  not  being  fertilized,  would  not  germinate. 

From  the  shape  and  size  of  the  alfalfa  blossom,  it  is  not  probable 
that  cross-fertilization  could  be  safely  accomplished  by  means  of  cur- 
rents of  air. 

It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  outside  agencies  must  be  called  upon, 
and  the  plant  must  provide  for  these  agencies.  The  agents  in  this 
case  we  find  to  be  insects,  and  the  reward  offered  by  the  plant  for 
favors  rendered  is  a  sweet  drop  of  nectar;  that  is,  the  flower  in  an 
enticing  way  places  a  tempting  sip  of  nectar  in  such  a  position  that 
when  the  insect  has  favored  the  flower  with  a  few  grains  of  pollen  un- 
consciously brought  from  an  adjoining  flower  and  just  as  uncon- 
sciously left,  the  coveted  sip  may  be  enjoyed.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  first  flower  visited  will  not  be  cross-fertilized. 

INFLUENCE  OF  BEES  UPON  THE  SEED  CROP. 

It  is  well  known  to  every  stock-breeder  that  in-and-in  breeding  will 
soon  cause  the  strain  to  deteriorate,  and  that  infusions  of  new  life  are- 


ALFALFA    AND    BEES. 


83 


FIG.  4.  (Original.)  a,  cluster  of  alfalfa  with  bee  feeding.  6,  bee  thrusting  proboscis  into 
flower:  1,  vexillum  ;  £,  alae ;  3,  carina  ;  4,  reproductive  organs  (gametangia) ;  5,  calyx,  c,  alfalfa 
bloom  with  vexillum  torn  off:  2,  alee ;  5,  carina  ;  4,  reproductive  organs  (gametangia) ;  5,  stigma  ; 
6,  anthers;  7,  calyx,  d:  7,  filament;  2,  anther;  3,  style;  4,  stigma.  <°,  pistil:  1,  ovary;  2,  style; 
5,  sticrma  ;  4,  ovules.  /,  cross-section  of  pistil:  7,  detached  filament;  2,  filament  sheath :  3,  ovary  ; 
4,  ovule.  «7,  highly  magnified  pollen  grains. 

required  to  keep  the  desired  vigor  within  the  breed.  As  is  the  case 
with  animals  so  it  is  with  plants.  It  was  previously  supposed  that 
within  each  flower  were  the  necessary  organs  and  the  means  for  assur- 
ing the  formation  of  the  embryo  within  the  seed.  Darwin,  however, 
has  clearly  shown  that  many  plants,  instead  of  endeavoring  to  facili- 
tate self-fertilization  ( the  forming  of  seed  in  the  ovary  from  pollen  of 
same  flower),  are  constructed  in  a  manner  to  hinder  or  prevent  it. 
Among  this  number  may  be  classed  the  plant  under  consideration. 
A  careful  examination  of  the  accompanying  figure  and  explanations 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  outside  agencies  are  required  to  insure  fertili- 
zation, especially  cross-fertilization.  The  process  of  fertilization  in  a 
typical  flower  is  not  complex.  The  stamens  have  long  filaments  which 
bear  the  pollen-producing  anthers  high  above  the  ovary ;  when  the 
pollen  is  ripe  it  falls  naturally  upon  the  stigma  of  the  ovary,  and  fer- 
tilization of  the  seed  is  soon  accomplished. 


84 


ALFALFA  AND  BEES. 


The  writer  conducted  a  number  of  experiments  upon  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  alfalfa  bloom.  The  first  work  consisted  in  covering  a  large 
number  of  blossoms  with  fine  cheese-cloth'.  It  soon  became  evident 
that  this  would  exclude  all  insects,  and  the  good  services  of  the  bee 
would  not  be  demonstrated,  so  that  this  line  was  discontinued  and 
another  taken  up. 

A  large  number  of  representative  ripened  pods  were  gathered  from 
an  alfalfa  field  less  than  one-half  mile  away  from  a  large  apiary,  and 
a  like  number  from  another  field  of  much  the  same  soil  and,  practi- 
cally, under  like  conditions  as  the  first  field,  except  that  the  second 
field  was  situated  twenty-five  miles  away  from  a  colony  of  bees.  No 
bees  were  observed  in  the  field,  arid  the  character  of  the  surround- 
ings, there  being  no  timber  or  probable  living  places,  was  such  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  wild  bees  in  the  vicinity.  The  pods  from 
each  locality  were  carefully  opened  and  number  of  seeds  in  each 
counted.  The  results  and  comparison  to  be  made  therefrom  are  cer- 
tainly of  interest. 


Seeds  taken  half  mile  from  bees  ; 

Seeds  taken  twenty-five  miles  from 

87  pods  examined. 

bees;  80  pods  examined. 

No.  of  seeds 
in  pod. 

No.  of  pods 
bearing  that 
number  of 

Total  number 
of  seeds. 

No.  of  seeds 
in  pod. 

No.  of  pods 
bearing  that 
number  of 

Total  number 
of  seeds. 

seeds. 

seeds. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

8 

8 

2 

5 

10 

2 

18 

36 

3 

8 

24 

3 

20 

60 

4 

14 

56 

4 

15 

60 

5 

18 

90 

5 

7 

35 

6 

11 

66 

6 

5 

'30 

7 

15 

105 

7 

3 

21 

8 

9 

72 

8 

1 

8 

9 

2 

18 

9 

0 

0 

10 

4 

40 

10 

1 

10 

Totals  

87 

482 

Totals  

80 

268 

Average  number  of  seeds  in  a  pod,  5.58+. 
Seeds  plump;  pods  numerous  in  cluster;  pods 
having  several  spirals. 

Average  number  of  seeds  in  a  pod,  3.35.  Seeds 
in  at  least  one-third  of  the  pods  were  small 
and  shriveled;   pods  few  in  a  cluster;  short, 
with  but  few  spirals. 

Per  cent,  of  increase  of  the  first  field  over  the  second,  66? . 
ALFALFA    AS    A    HONEY    PLANT. 

My  observations  upon  this  subject  during  the  past  season  have 
been  that  it  will  yield  the  greatest  amount  of  nectar  under  circum- 
stances which  tend  to  give  the  plant  the  most  vigorous  growth  ;  that 
is,  proper  amount  of  heat  and  moisture,  upon  suitable  soil.  If  the 
plant  is  upon  upland,  dry  weather  will  affect  the  secretion  of  nectar 
before  it  will  be  affected  in  the>alley,  such  as  the  Arkansas  valley, 


ALFALFA    AND   BEES.  85 

where  the  roots  of  the  plants  extend  to  the  water.  In  September  the 
bees  were  busy  in  the  alfalfa  in  the  Arkansas  valley ;  while,  on  the 
higher  ground  of  one  of  the  counties  on  the  eastern  border,  I  visited 
a  beautiful  piece  of  alfalfa  near  by  an  apiary,  but  no  bees  were  found. 
They  were  at  that  time  flying  over  the  alfalfa  to  the  knotweeds  be- 
yond. A  strong  point  in  favor  of  this  plant,  as  shown  by  Miiller,  is 
that  it  continues  to  secrete  nectar  as  long  as  the  blossom  flourishes. 
A  greater  part  of  the  alfalfa  produced  in  this  state  is  cultivated  for 
forage,  and,  since  for  this  purpose  it  is  cut  while  in  full  bloom,  the 
honey  crop  is  materially  less  than  it  would  be  if  alfalfa  were  allowed 
to  mature.  Daring  a  dry  period  bees  will  fly  over  alfalfa  fields  in 
bloom  to  a  field  which  has  been  irrigated  a  few  days  previously  and 
has  begun  to  bloom. 

The  relation  existing  between  alfalfa  and  apiculture  can  well  be 
obtained  by  a  comparison  of  the  tables  following,  the  data  for  which 
Mr.  F.  D.  Coburn,  of  the  state  board  of  agriculture,  has  kindly  fur- 
nished. The  attention  of  the  reader  is  called  to  the  yield  of  honey 
per  hive  in  counties  where  larger  acreages  of  alfalfa  exist,  as  compared 
with  the  yield  per  hive  where  the  crop  is  much  less. 


86 


ALFALFA  AND  BEES. 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE,  showing  alfalfa  acreage,  stands  of  bees,  pounds  of  honey  produced,  and 
the  value  thereof,  in  Kansas,  for  tbe  two  years  1897  and  1898. 


COUNTIES. 

1897. 

1898. 

Acres 
of 
alfalfa. 

Stands 
of 
bees. 

Pounds 
of 
honey. 

Value 
of 
honey. 

Acres 
of 
alfalfa. 

Stands 
of 
bees. 

Pounds 
of 
honey. 

Value 
ot 
honey. 

The  State  
Allen 

171,334 

44,345 

534,925 

$80,238  75 

231,548 

60,941 

622,703 

$93,405  45 

91 
124 
345 
1,453 
1,565 

31 
517 
7,755 
5,753 
3,481 

6 

605 
775 
207 
4,696 

757 

3,904 
19 
3,307 

1,745 
44 

396 
2,930 

2,837 

185 
441 

11,726 
4,277 
56 

559 
499 
391 
9 
1,918 

526 
508 
546 
11 

1 

1,512 
1,421 

638 
710 
299 

2,046 

4,295 
3,721 
4,516 

$644  25 
558  15 
681  90 

633 
197 
171 

1,026 

1,678 

416 
666 
1,391 
4 

1,365 
3,437 
12,579 
50 

$204  75 
515  55 

1,886  85 
7  50 

Anderson  
Atchison  
Barber  

Barton  
Bourbon 

10,153 
23,231 
6,904 
8,830 
3,691 

23,058 

1,52295 
3,484  65 
1,035  60 
1,324  50 
553  65 

3,458  70 

98 
6S8 
12,029 
7,298 
3,998 

37 
682 

575 
381 
5,729 

943 
19 

5,722 
6 

4,278 

2,000 
J26 
604 
6,523 

3,860 

316 

644 
11,795 
4.5U8 
175 

723 
1,019 

1,385 
2,633 
939 
605 
501 

1,476 
6 
6 
1,328 
744 

736 

"'i',076' 

1,922 
26 

726 
1,343 
1,605 
15 
523 

7,778 
34,317 
8.295 
1,849 
929 

6,286 
100 

1,166  70 
5,147  55 
1,244  25 

277  35 
139  35 

942  90 
.  15  00 

Brown  . 

Butler... 
Chase  
Chautauqua  .. 

Cherokee 

Cheyenne  .  . 
Clark  
Clay  

481 
689 

6-28 

8,303 
8,763 

5,912 

1,245  45 
1,314  45 

886  80 

7,616 
10,644 

2,466 

1,142  40 

.  1,596  60 

369  90 

Cloud  
Coffey 

Comanche  
Cowley 

542 

1,509 
12 

397 
927 
1,258 
14 
467 

2,905 
19,234 
60 

6,429 
11,013 
15,112 
50 
3,649 

435  75 

2,885  10 
9  00 

964  35 
1,656  45 
2,266  80 
7  50 
547  35 

9,702 
10,566 
380 

5,897 
12,970 
20,714 
410 
3,623 

1,455  30 
1,584  90 
57  00 

884  55 
1,945  50 
3,107  10 
60  00 
543  45 

Crawford  
Decatur  

Dickinson  
Doniphan  
Douglas  
Edwards  

Elk 

Ellis... 
Ellsworth  
Finney 

'"533 
5 
1,432 

296 

"is",  665 
10 
9,954 

3,663 

"2,  '649'  75' 
1  50 
1,493  10 

549  45 

5 

7.'2 
39 
1,628 

388 

80 
50,535 
2,020 
13,052 

2,938 

12  CO 

7,580  25 
30300 
1,957  80 

440  70 

Ford  .. 

Franklin  

Geary  

Gove  .  . 

Graham  
Grant  
Gray  

707 

8 

40 

600 

2,250 

6 
9,518 
2,779 
321 
2,143 

29 

887 

13005 

Greeley  

Greenwood.... 
Hamilton  
Harper  
Harvey  

5,359 
2,422 
527 
1,535 

596 
106 
10 
71 

2,831 

424  65 

623 
3 
2 
123 

2,231 
200 

334  65 

30  00 

424 

63  60 

1,463 

220  20 

Haskell  

Hodgeman  — 
Jackson  
Jefferson  
Jewell  

127 
575 
239 
6,786 

129 
6,620 
407 
109 
156 

430 
66 
1,082 
28 
240 

5,143 
4,913 

857 
3,354 
1.286 

131 

865 
325 
10,454 

129 
5,545 
433 
161 
170 

512 

349 
1,545 
66 
159 

9,129 
7,518 
1,397 
4,546 
2,323 

915 

1,207 
866 

932 

77 

10,189 
15,031 
12,499 

13.215 
2,275 

1,528  35 
2,254  65 

1,874  85 

1,982  25 
341  25 

1,836 
1,255 
1,276 

1,164 
107 

21,839 
14,313 
19,285 

15,486 
7,060 

3,275  85 
2,146  95 
2,892  75 

2,322  90 
1,059  00 

Johnson  
Kearny  

Kingman 

Kiowa  
Labette 

i,i96 

8,367 

1,255  05 

1,503 

2,662 

399  30 

Lane 

Leavenworth  . 
Lincoln  .  
Linn  
Logan 

973 
5 
779 

11,888 
108 
3,921 

1,783  20 
16  20 
588  15 

1,680 
32 
960 

19,588 
212 
6,667 

2,938  20 
31  80 
1,000  05 

Lyon  .... 

1,154 
476 
1,457 
97 
5 

12,658 
4,310 
26,752 
1,151 

1,898  70 
646  50 
4,012  80 
172  65 

1,145 

502 
4  996 

178 
5 

3,458 
416 
33,548 
2,223 
15 

518  70 
62  40 
5,032  20 
333  45 
2  25 

Marion  .  .  . 
Marshall  
McPherson.... 

M.-a.l.-... 

ALFALFA    AND   BEES. 


87 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  — CONCLUDED. 


u 

>97. 

IS 

9». 

COUNTIES. 

Acres 
of 
alfalfa. 

Stands 
of 
bees 

Pounds 
of 
honey. 

Value 
of 
honey. 

Acres 
of 
alfalfa. 

Stands 
of 
bees. 

Pounds 
of 
honey. 

Value 
of 
honey. 

Miami  

48 

857 

8,589 

$1,288  35 

152 

1.C06 

12,073 

$1,810  95 

Mitchell  
Montgomery  .  . 
Morris      

5,149 
579 
426 

622 

456 
440 

8,262 
2,352 
2,075 

1,239  30 
352  80 
311  25 

7,015 
1,637 

889 

770 
388 
255 

11,958 
742 
1,315 

1,793  70 
111  30 
201  75 

3 

2 

Nemaha  
Neosho  

2,235 
136 

1,210 
711 

22,905 
6,615 

3,435  75 
992  25 

2,551 
252 

2,566 
733 

36,512 
1,023 

5,476  80 
153  45 

Ness 

121 

178 

1 

Norton  

4,112 

475 

10.577 

1,586  55 

5,965 

424 

17,439 

2,615  85 

Osage  
Osborne       .  .  . 

965 
3,924 

952 
19 

10,987 
60 

1,648  05 
9  00 

1,908 
4,076 

1,591 
19 

6,406 
356 

960  90 
53  40 

Ottawa 

2  725 

390 

3,102 

465  30 

3,308 

447 

3,910 

585  00 

Pawnee 

365 

24 

500 

75  00 

597 

21 

1,620 

243  CO 

Phillips  
Pottawatomie, 

Pratt 

3,142 
3,294 

76 

85 
1,235 

790 
18,350 

118  50 
2,752  50 

4,062 
4,340 

171 

93 

1,585 

I,h38 
17,560 

275  70 
2,634  00 

Rawlins  

2,401 

8 

40 

6  00 

998 

10 

720 

108  00 

Reno       

3,574 

10 

22 

3  30 

4,385 

13 

64 

9  60 

Republic  
Rice 

2,667 
1,830 

614 
29 

9.89J 
205 

1,483  50 
30  75 

4,012 

2,871 

1,220 
36 

17,696 
1,160 

2,654  40 
174  00 

Riley  
Rooks 

1,927 

880 

.,376 

22,118 
350 

3,317  70 
54  00 

2,806 
1,271 

1,558 

18 

14,723 

400 

2,208  45 
60  00 

Rush 

45 

70 

Russell 

372 

407 

Saline  
Scott 

5,269 
206 

614 

5,771 

865  65 

6,228 
248 

712 

5,423 

813  45 

Sedgwick  

4,389 
17 

468 

3,510 

526  50 

6,530 
15 

769 

6,969 

1,045  35 

Shawnee  

1,115 

2  096 

872 
2 

8,106 

1,215  90 

1,740 
3  334 

1,192 
3 

6,739 

1,010  85 

50 

18 

Smith  
Stafford  

1,026 
352 

61 

708 

106  20 

1,598 
504 

90 
2 

1,225 
20 

183  75 
3  00 

Stanton 

1 

Stevens  

Sumner  
'\  homas 

1,516 

2  '1 

56 

128 

19  20 

2,035 
372 

150 
6 

770 
100 

115  50 
15  00 

Trego 

396 

677 

Wabaunsee  .  .  . 
Wallace  

4,295 
570 

1,709 

13,919 

2,087  85 

6,439 
685 

1,196 
6 

12,770 
140 

1,915  50 
21  00 

Washington  .. 
Wichita 

763 
148 

1,389 

42,777 

6,416  55 

1,139 

178 

2,312 

50,389 

7,558  35 

Wilson  
Woodson  
Wyandotte  .... 

1,180 
843 
79 

579 
380 
316 

2,602 
3,720 
3,045 

390  30 
55800 
456  75 

2,462 
1,325 
136 

696 
312 
474 

2,789 
1,170 
4,538 

418  35 
175  50 
680  70 

88  OBSERVATIONS   BY    APIARISTS. 


OBSERVATIONS   GATHERED  FROM  KANSAS  APIARISTS. 

During  the  field-work  this  year  it  was  the  writer's  privilege  to  meet 
a  large  number  of  the  Kansas  apiarists  at  work  among  their  bees.  In 
conversation,  many  thoughts  concerning  their  observations  upon  bees 
and  honey  plants  were  expressed.  Some  of  these,  unknown  to  the 
speakers,  were  jotted  down  and  appear  here.  An  extensive  corre- 
spondence with  some  400  bee-keepers  in  this  state  furnishes  much 
valuable  reading  for  those  interested.  The  substance  of  some  of  these 
letters  is  given  here. 

The  number  of  personal  discussions  and  opinions  which  appear 
here  might  be  increased  many  times,  but  in  so  doing  the  same  ideas 
would  be  repeated ;  want  of  space  also  forbids ;  so  that  the  substance 
of  the  views  of  a  few  apiarists  of  Kansas  upon  the  principal  honey- 
producing  plants  of  the  state,  together  with  a  few  other  facts  concern- 
ing apiculture,  are  herewith  given. 

J.  F.  HUGHES,  Marquette,  McPherson  county ;  thirty  stands ;  Ital- 
ians. '"They  are  good  workers,  and  it  takes  a  very  strong  wind  to  keep 
them  in  their  hives.  In  central  Kansas  we  must  depend  almost  en- 
tirely on  alfalfa  for  a  honey  plant.  White  clover  cannot  be  cultivated 
successfully  here.  Buckwheat  can  be  raised  in  abundance,  but  can  we 
afford  to  raise  it  for  the  honey  alone?  If  season  is  favorable,  Italian 
bees  will  gather  100  pounds  per  stand  from  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  will  grow 
here  entirely  without  irrigation." 

MRS.  C.  E.  ANDERSON,  Salina,  Saline  county ;  eighty  colonies ; 
Italians  and  hybrids.  "Alfalfa  is  our  main  honey  plant,  and  in  a 
favorable  season  the  honey  is  equal  to  the  best  white  honey.  Buck- 
wheat makes  a  good  yield  sometimes,  but  the  honey  is  dark  and  strong. 
In  1895  I  had  1075  pounds  fine  comb  honey  from  twelve  colonies,  and 
several  hundred  pounds  more  not  in  marketable  shape." 

WM.  MILLER,  Emporia,  Lyon  county;  sixty-three  stands.  "I  re- 
gard alfalfa  superior  as  a  honey  plant  to  buckwheat  or  white  clover, 
as  I  have  known  the  latter  in  Ohio.  I  believe  that  a  few  stands 
of  bees  on  the  lands  of  every  Kansas  farmer  would  be  a  source  of 
revenue,  as  well  as  adding  quite  a  luxury  to  the  living  of  himself  and 
family,  and  that  with  less  outlay  of  labor  and  money  than  anything 
else  I  know,  unless  it  be  the  cow  and  hen.  Bee-culture  very  naturally 
works  in  with  all  small  fruits,  truck  patches,  fowls  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  other  kindred  industries,  as  an  individual  can  be  working  at 
the  one,  and  yet  have  his  apiary  so  located  as  to  have  an  eye  over  it 
continually  during  the  swarming  season.  The  bee  can  be  wintered 
in  Kansas  without  any  special  preparation.  Kansas  is  destined  to  be- 
come a  great  honey-producing  state  as  the  alfalfa  gains  more  and 
more,  as  it  is  bound  to  do." 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS.  89 

MRS.  L.  A.  CAREY,  Phillipsburg,  Phillips  county.  "Began  bee- 
keeping in  1895;  have  now  twelve  colonies.  Five  colonies  this  season 
produced  300  of  pounds  surplus  honey  and  gave  off  two  swarms.  In 
order  to  prevent  a  second  swarm,  I  changed  position  of  old  and  new 
swarms  in  daytime.  This  causes  all  the  bees  in  the  field  to  fly  to 
the  young  colony,  builds  it  up,  and  weakens  the  old  swarm,  so  that  it 
does  not  have  the  desire  for  increase.  We  have  to  depend  on 
alfalfa  here  for  the  main  honey  crop.  It  makes  a  beautiful  white 
honey,  like  white  clover.  Alfalfa  produces  the  most  honey  during 
the  month  of  July." 

H.  M.  HILL,  Paola,  Miami  county,  twenty  stands;  Italians.  "I 
do  not  consider  alfalfa  a  success  as  a  honey  plant,  as  we  had  a  large 
pasture  one-half  mile  from  the  bees  and  received  no  honey.  I  am  a 
stock-raiser,  and  have  no  time  for  bees,  so  they  receive. but  little  care. 
We  consider  white  clover  the  best  of  honey  plants,  and  buckwheat 
good  at  times." 

GEORGE  YOXALL,  Woodston,  Rooks  county ;  twenty  stands ;  all 
Italians  or  hybrids.  "Alfalfa  is  an  excellent  honey  plant  here,  yield- 
ing the  best  white  honey,  from  the  1st  of  June  until  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember, and  sometimes  as  late  as  the  1st  of  October.  Sweet  clover 
may  be  superior  in  yield,  in  a  more  continuous  flow  of  honey,  as  there 
is  no  check  in  mowing  as  there  is  in  alfalfa,  and  alfalfa  does  not  give 
the  best  results  on  account  of  taking  off  the  crop  just  about  the  time 
the  bees  are  commencing  to  work  on  it,  and  if  there  is  no  seed  crop 
taken,  there  is  not  much  benefit  conferred." 

J.  G.  BROOKS,  Pleasanton,  Linn  county;  forty  stands.  "Have 
spent  fifty  years  with  bees.  I  have  had  no  experience  with  alfalfa. 
White  clover,  buckwheat,  corn  tassel  and  tree  blossoms  are  good  here. 
Bees  should  be  cared  for  the  same  as  other  stock.  Care  will  pay." 

E.  K.  TERRY,  Burlingame,  Osage county;  thirteen  colonies.  "Have 
had  no  experience  with  alfalfa  as  a  honey  plant.  We  have  members  in 
our  town  bee-keepers'  association  who  have  quantities  of  alfalfa  on 
land  watered  by  rains,  who  report  favorably.  Mr.  Arnold  has  both  al- 
falfa and  alsike,  and  reports  that  alsike  produces  much  better-flavored 
honey  and  more  of  it  than  the  alfalfa.  I  consider  the  sweet  clover 
one  of  the  very  best  honey  plants.  It  produces  white  and  good- 
flavored  honey.  I  would  keep  bees  for  the  pleasure  and  honey 
enough  to  supply  the  family.  I  consider  honey  one  of  the  greatest 
table  luxuries  that  it  is  possible  to  have.  I  find  that  with  cellar 
wintering  I  can  bring  out  a  strong  colony  in  the  spring  on  ten  to 
twelve  pounds  of  honey." 

M.  B.  GUARD,  Beloit,  Mitchell  county;  eleven  colonies;  all  Ital- 
ians. "Alfalfa  honey  is  better  than  white  clover,  because  it  is  richer. 


90 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS. 


It  is  better  than  buckwheat,  because  it  is  as  thick  and  rich  and  a 
great  deal  whiter." 

MRS.  M.  D.  HETZEL,  Kinsley,  Edwards  county;  nine  stands.  "Our 
feed  for  bees  here  is  mostly  alfalfa,  some  wild  flowers;  no  fruit-tree 
blossoms.  The  bees  find  considerable  feed  on  the  box-elder  trees  early 
in  spring.  Have  a  fifty-acre  field  of  alfalfa  joining  the  apiary,  with 
plenty  of  water  within  a  few  rods.  The  bees  have  had  continuous 
feed  upon  alfalfa  blossoms  from  the  10th  of  May  until  frost,  which 
this  year  did  not  hurt  the  blossoms  until  the  16th  of  October.  Do 
not  think  white  clover  or  buckwheat  could  be  any  improvement  on 


Fio.  5.     (Original.)     Houey-bee  on  alfalla.     From  photograph. 

alfalfa  for  honey,  either  in  quality  or  quantity.  Our  best  swarm  this 
year  produced  forty  pounds  by  July  3,  and  thirty-two  more  at  the 
close  of  the  season,  making  seventy-two  pounds  for  the  swarm.  Five 
of  the  other  swarms  did  nearly  as  well.  Our  honey  this  season  was 
pronounced  by  all  who  tried  it  to  be  as  fine,  if  not  the  finest,  flavored 
they  had  ever  eaten.  I  do  not  know  yet  as  there  is  much  profit 
in  keeping  bees,  but  it  is  light  and  pleasant  work.  My  sixteen-year- 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIAHISTS.: 


old  daughter  attends  the  bees  almost  entirely  and  enjoys  it.  She  says 
it  is  easier  than  raising  poultry,  and  has  more  money  in  it.  I  know  it 
will  pay  any  farmer's  wife  to  keep  a  few  stands  of  bees  in  order  to 
have  plenty  of  honey  to  use  in  the  family." 

J.  C.  BALCH,  Bronson.  Bourbon  county;  fifteen  stands.  "I  prefer 
Italians  ;  have  found  Cyprians  cross  and  almost  unmanageable.  We 
have  no  honey-producing  flora  in  this  part  of  the  state.  Bees  in  Kan- 
sas are  not  a  source  of  pecuniary  income  every  year;  but,  taking  one 
year  with  another,  will  average  with  other  agricultural  pursuits.  I 
have  been  keeping  bees  in  a  small  way  since  1875,  and  have  never 
been  out  of  honey  for  our  table  but  twice,  for  a  few  months  each  time, 
and  I  have  sold  hundreds  of  dollars'  worth  of  honey." 

D.  B.  JONES,  Mound  Ridge,  McPherson  county.  "I  have  four 
stands  of  bees.  My  experience  is  that  alfalfa  is  a  good  honey  plant 
upon  lands  watered  by  rain.  But  I  do  not  think  there  is  any  better 
plant  to  make  fine-flavored  honey  than  white  clover.  Yet  our  bees 
have  been  doing  much  better  since  there  has  been  plenty  of  alfalfa 
raised  here.  I  do  not  think  bees  have  half  the  care  they  deserve." 

H.  H.  McGuGiN,  May  view,  Jewell  county;  forty  stands.  "I  prefer 
Italian,  but  like  Carniolans  almost  as  well.  I  think  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover  are  the  best  honey-producing  plants  we  have." 

P.  C.  GRESS,  M.  D.,  Atchison,  Atchison  county;  fifty  stands.  "I 
have  none  but  Italians,  as  I  find  them  far  superior  in  every  way  to 
other  races.  They  are  better  workers,  more  gentle,  less  excitable, 
winter  better,  remain  kindly  upon  the  comb,  while  other  races 
under  like  handling  run  and  fall  down  and  scatter,  and  are  more 
annoying  to  the  apiarist.  One  of  my  observations  is  of  special  inter- 
est to  fruit-growers.  In  my  estimation  the  honey-bee  is  one  of  the 
greatest  necessities  for  the  proper  cross-fertilization  of  blooms.  I 
have  protected  limbs  of  trees  by  screen  cloth  during  blossoming  sea- 
son, and  kept  the  insects  from  them,  only  to  find  a  limb  without  fruit, 
where  others,  without  protection,  were  well  fruited.  I  have  received 
good  interest  on  every  dollar  invested,  and  mean  to  continue  the  in- 
dustry, despite  the  loss  and  backset  which  I  received  last  winter,  153 
•colonies  stored  for  the  winter  being  burned." 

SOLON  STEERE,  Asherville,  Mitchell  county  ;  thirty-five  colonies  ; 
Italians.  "  I  think  that  alfalfa  is  about  the  only  plant  here  from  which 
bees  secure  a  surplus  of  honey,  and  that,  of  course,  with  natural 
moisture.  Sweet  clover  I  consider  the  very  best  honey  plant  we  have, 
but  there  is  not  enough  of  it.  It  is  not  inclined  to  spread  very  fast. 
I  have  scattered  quite  a  little  of  the  seed  at  different  times,  but  re- 
sults have  not  been  very  encouraging.  We  seem  to  get  the  greatest 
benefit  from  alfalfa,  when  it  is  left  for  the  seed  crop.  I  do  not  make 


92 


OBSERVATIONS    BY    APIARISTS. 


any  special  effort  to  care  for  the  bees,  to  make  money  from  them.  I 
have  sold  many  colonies  in  the  years  gone  by.  We  sell  some  honey, 
and  have  all  we  want  for  ourselves.  There  is  no  good  reason  why 
every  family  should  not  have  a  full  supply  of  honey  all  the  year 
round.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  get  the  start  in  bees ;  furnish  them 
a  home,  and  protect  them.  They  seem  to  be  willing  to  work  for  any 
one,  and  board  themselves." 

ROBERT  DOUGLAS,  Long  Island,  Phillips  county.  "I  had  six  hives, 
grade  Italians,  last  spring,  and  by  natural  swarming  I  saved  thirteen, 
making  nineteen  swarms  at  present.  From  fourteen  hives  I  have 
taken  800  pounds  of  section  honey,  which  is  worth  at  home  ten  cents 
per  pound.  My  year's  profit  might  be  reckoned  thus : 


Dr. 

6  hives  bees,  at  $5 $30  00 

Supplies 25  00 

Labor 20  00 

To  balance  (profit) 81  00 

Total..  ..$15600 


800  pounds  of  honey,  at  lOc. . .    $80  00 
19  hives  bees,  at  $4 7600 


Total. .  .  . .  $156  00 


ED.  HOFFMEISTER,  Norton,  Norton  county.  "My  experience  shows 
alfalfa  to  be  a  very  good  honey  plant.  Bee-keeping  is  quite  profitable 
if  a  person  tries  to  make  it  so.  It  is  some  expense  to  begin,  but  I 
have  always  made  expenses  and  good  interest  on  my  money." 

R.  W.  SMITH,  Delphos,  Ottawa  county;  twenty-two  stands;  Ital- 
ians. "My  bees  gather  their  honey  from  alfalfa  watered  by  rain,  and 
have  made  forty  pounds  of  honey  to  the  stand.  Alfalfa  honey  is  su- 
perior to  white  clover  or  buckwheat  honey.  I  lost  several  valuable 
swarms  by  wintering  them  in  the  cellar.  Chaff  hives  are  preferable. 
I  use  foundation  comb  for  starting.  Bees  sometimes  put  comb  in 
crosswise,  and  the  starter  prevents  this.  There  is  money,  good  health 
and  honey  in  the  bee  business." 

W.  D.  JONES,  Neodesha,  Wilson  county.  "I  think  alfalfa  is  equal 
to  white  clover  or  buckwheat." 

M.  A.  BUTTS,  Hiawatha,  Brown  county.  "My  honey  has  been 
mostly  secured  from  white  and  alsike  clover,  basswood,  buckwheat, 
and  wild  flowers.  I  consider  alsike  superior  to  white  clover  as  a  honey 
plant.  My  experience  leads  me  to  the  conclusion  that  bees,  with 
proper  care  and  attention,  will  pay  in  this  country.  It  is  important 
to  protect  bees  well  in  winter  and  have  them  strong  in  spring." 

JACOB  SWOYER,  Winchester,  Jefferson  county;  twenty  stands; 
Italian.  "  Buckwheat,  white  clover  and  smartweed  are  the  principal 
honey  plants  here.  I  have  had  no  experience  with  alfalfa.  Like 
white  clover  best  when  the  season  is  not  too  wet.  I  do  not  allow  my 
colonies  to  swarm  much,  about  twice  in  three  years.  I  prefer  one 
strong  colony  to  a  dozen  weak  ones.  In  1896  I  had  hives  which  made 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS.  93 

110  pounds  of  honey  and  plenty  for  their  own  use.  I  would  not  do 
without  my  bees,  as  I  think  honey  and  pancakes  good  enough  for 
anybody." 

D.  J.  FRASER,  Peabody,  Marion  county;  fifty-four  stands.  "I  use 
Italians  crossed  with  the  German  bee.  Alfalfa  is  best  in  a  medium 
wet  season.  Bees  seem  to  care  nothing  for  it  if  season  is  very  dry  or 
very  wet.  Like  all  other  stock  in  Kansas,  bees  require  some  intelli- 
gent care.  If  properly  mismanaged  they  seem  to  swarm  world  with- 
out end." 


FIG.  6.   (Original.)     Honey-bee  on  white  clover.    From  photograph. 

F.  H.  MILLER,  Great  Bend,  Barton  county.  "I  had  thirteen  stands 
in  the  spring,  and  have  twenty-eight  now.  Have  taken  1200  pounds 
of  comb  honey,  all  alfalfa.  It  is  a  good  honey  plant.  There  is  but 
one  clover  that  beats  alfalfa,  and  that  is  alsike.  I  have  a  small  patch 
which  blooms  eight  or  ten  days  earlier  than  alfalfa,  and  the  bees  are 
thick  in  it  from  morning  till  evening.  Alfalfa  is  a  good  and  delicious 
honey  plant,  and  produces  a  fine-flavored  honey,  better  than  Colorado 
honey  as  there  is  no  other  flavor  mixed  with  it.  I  sell  my  honey  at 
fifteen  cents  per  pound,  while  Colorado  honey  sells  for  ten  and  twelve 
cents.  A  person  cannot  expect  something  for  nothing.  Take  care  of 
your  bees  and  they  will  pay  as  good  profit  as  anything  I  know  of. 
I  am  in  the  hardware  and  agricultural  implement  business,  and  have 
little  time  for  bees  myself.  Mrs.  Miller,  however,  thinks  more  of  the 
bees  than  anything  else,  and  enjoys  taking  care  of  them.  I  think  if 
more  wives  and  daughters  would  take  it  up  it  would  be  better  for 
them.  They  would  find  it  a  very  good  and  enjoyable  business.  If  a 
bee  stings  sometimes,  it  is  good  for  rheumatism,  and  there  seems  to  be 


94  OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS. 

plenty  of  that  in  this  country.  Alfalfa  is  far  ahead  of  buckwheat  or 
white  clover." 

R.  L.  SNODGRASS,  Gordon,  Butler  county.  "Have  sixty  hives  and 
manage,  in  addition,  forty  for  others.  I  have  kept  hybrids  and  Ital- 
ians, and  prefer  the  latter.  Alfalfa  has  given  me  wonderful  honey 
flows.  My  hives  on  scales  this  season  and  last  ran  as  high  as  fifteen 
pounds  per  day.  I  have  turned  my  whole  attention  to  the  bee  busi- 
ness and  have  secured  for  this  season's  labor  5000  pounds  comb  and 
extracted  honey  from  sixty  hives.  I  secured  this  season  200  pounds 
from  one  hive.  Alfalfa,  in  my  experience,  is  far  ahead  of  buckwheat 
as  a  honey  plant.  I  winter  my  bees  both  in  the  cellar  and  in  the  open 
air  with  success." 

W.  D.  FULTON,  Garden  City,  Finney  county,  eighty-five  stands, 
"Alfalfa  as  a  honey  plant  is  second  to  none  for  richness  of  nectar  and 
flavor.  It  is  a  very  common  thing  for  a  single  colony  to  gather  2001 
pounds  of  comb  honey  in  a  season  and  sometimes  more.  I  would  pre- 
fer a  dry  climate  for  bees,  provided  there  is  plenty  of  water  at  com- 
mand, but  usually  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to  make  the  business- 
profitable  here.  I  meet  with  very  few  difficulties  in  the  care  of  my 
bees." 

DR.  T.  J.  CONRY,  Florence,  Marion  county ;  300  stands.  "Alfalfa 
is  our  best  and  surest  honey  producer,  although  sweet  clover  would 
probably  be  better  if  raised  in  equal  quantities." 

C.  A.  D.  BENNETT,  Garden  City,  Finney  county.  "  I  have  220  stands- 
of  bees.  Alfalfa  is  a  splendid  honey  plant.  There  is  no  better  in 
Kansas.  We  get  three  distinct  flows  from  it  each  year.  Each  bloom 
gives  a  flow.  The  flow  on  irrigated  land  is  more  even  than  on  land 
watered  by  rain,  but  is  not  so  heavy.  Alfalfa  is  superior  in  every  way 
to  while  clover,  sweet  clover,  or  buckwheat.  I  do  not  attempt  to 
build  up  weak  colonies.  I  believe  in  the  survival  of  the  fittest.  I 
give  my  bees  the  best  care  and  attention.  I  leave  plenty  of  honey  in 
the  fall  for  their  winter's  supply.  Then  if  they  dwindle  I  let  them 
go,  and  pay  attention  to  my  other  colonies.  In  this  way  I  rear  colo- 
nies disposd  to  be  strong." 

JOHN  WEIR,  Carbondale,  Osage  county.  "I  have  at  present  fifty- 
five  colonies.  I  prefer  the  pure  Italian.  They  are  good  honey 
gatherers,  hardy,  gentle,  and  beautiful.  I  have  had  no  experience 
with  alfalfa  as  a  honey  plant.  There  is  not  much  grown  in  my 
neighborhood.  We  have  both  the  yellow  and  white  sweet  clover  here 
on  waste  land.  The  yellow  is  of  most  value,  as  it  blooms  six  weeks 
earlier  than  the  white,  and  just  at  a  time  when  the  bees  are  much  in 
need  of  something  to  do.  When  the  honey  flow  begins,  I  place  the  comb- 
honey  colonies  in  one  brood  chamber,  and  keep  them  well-shaded,  put 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS.  95 

on  forty-eight  sections,  and  prop  the  hive  off  the  bottom  board  to 
give  better  ventilation.  In  this  way  I  prevent  swarming  to  a  very 
large  degree.  I  thus  secure  strong  colonies,  and  in  this  lies  the 
secret  of  profits  in  honey.  I  have  one  ton  of  surplus  honey  at  my 
elbow  taken  from  forty  colonies,  spring  count — 1500  pounds  ex- 
tracted, and  500  pounds  comb,  or  an  average  of  50  pounds  per  colony." 

LAURENS  HAWN,  Leavenworth,  Leavenworth  county.  "I  have  had 
no  experience  with  alfalfa.  White  clover  is  the  main  dependence  for 
a  flow  of  nectar  in  this  vicinity,  and  as  it  is  very  uncertain,  the  bee 
business  is  consequently  not  very  profitable.  There  seems  to  be  a 
prevalent  though  erroneous  idea  among  horticulturists  and  people  in 
general  who  raise  a  little  fruit  that  bees  are  destructive  to  the  ripe 
fruit.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  very  beneficial  to  fruit-growers,  and 
this  fact  should  be  promulgated  among  the  people.  I  have  had  con- 
siderable experience  in  this  matter  for  several  years,  and  know  posi- 
tively that  without  bees  our  fruit  crops  would  be  more  often  a  failure. 
My  apiary  is  in  an  orchard  between  two  small  vineyards ;  vines  within 
twenty  feet  of  the  hives.  I  have  suspended  a  bunch  of  ripe  grapes  in 
a  hive  during  a  time  when  the  bees  were  working  on  decayed  grapes 
in  the  vineyard,  and  not  a  grape  was  punctured.  Of  course,  when 
grapes  or  other  fruits  are  punctured  or  have  rotten  spots  in  them,  and 
there  is  no  nectar  in  the  blooms,  they  will  work  on  such  fruit ;  hence 
arise  the  erroneous  ideas  concerning  their  destructive  qualities.  I 
have  observed  that  if  there  is  so  much  rain  during  the  blooming 
period  that  bees  cannot  visit  the  fruit  blossoms,  there  is  always  a 
failure  of  fruit  crops.  Many  people  spray  their  fruit-trees  when 
they  are  in  bloom,  while  they  should  never  be  sprayed  until  the 
bloom  is  falling.  If  people  spray  trees  in  full  blossom  they  not 
only  kill  bees,  but  run  the  risk  of  poisoning  the  people  who  eat  the 
honey  made  at  that  time.  Another  point  is  that  in  reference  to  the 
wholesomeness  of  honey  as  food :  it  can  be  used  in  all  diseases  when 
sugar  and  other  sweets  are  prohibited,  and  if  bought  of  reliable 
parties  is  free  from  all  adulterations,  which  can  hardly  be  said  of 
sugar  and  other  sweets.'  Bee-keeping  in  this  local ily,  as  a  single  occu- 
pation, is  not  profitable." 

J.  F.  CROCKER,  Garden  City.  Finney  county.  "Alfalfa  is  a  splendid 
honey  plant  if  it  has  plenty  of  moisure,  either  from  rain  or  irrigation. 
During  protracted  dry  weather  it  does  not  secrete  nectar,  and  during 
excessive  wet  weather  the  bloom  sloughs  off,  and  we  get  no  honey. 
If  we  were  situated  so  we  could  irrigate  the  alfalfa  fields  immediately 
after  each  crop  of  hay  was  cut,  and  the  fields  were  not  all  mowed  at 
the  same  time,  and  none  mowed  until  the  seed-pods  begin  to  form, 
we  would  have  a  continuous  honey  flow  from  June  15  to  October  1." 


96 


OBSERVATIONS   BY    APIARISTS. 


FIG.  7.    (Original.)    Honey-bee  on  sweet  clover. 
From  photograph. 

SAMUEL  TEAFORD,  Norton,  Norton  county.  "Alfalfa  clover  is  the 
best  honey  plant  for  this  part  of  the  state.  It  grows  best  on  bottom 
lands,  and  produces  most  honey  in  seasons  of  moderate  rainfall.  The 
worst  difficulty  met  with  is  the  man  who  keeps  bees  and  puts  his 
honey  on  the  market  in  a  dirty,  filthy  condition,  half  capped,  and  no 
attention  paid  to  grading;  who,  if  he  cannot  find  ready  sale,  will  sell 
for  anything  offered  him,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  man  who  is 
careful  to  pl<ce  on  the  market  only  a  choice  article,  nicely  cleaned 
and  graded.  To  the  man  who  wants  to  keep  bees,  I  would  say,  do 
not  buy  but  one  or  two  stands  of  bees  to  start  with  ;  get  pure  Italians, 
in  standard  hives,  with  combs  built  on  full  sheets  of  foundation  and 
wired  in  frame ;  would  use  full  sheets  of  foundation,  if  had  to  pay  one 
dollar  a  pound  for  them.  Then  get  a  good  text-book  on  bee-keeping, 
and  pay  no  attention  to  the  man  who  tells  you  that  bees  do  not  pay, 


OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS.  97 

and  that  the  drones  build  the  combs,  and  that  the  wax  is  gathered 
from  sunflowers.  Every  farmer  who  is  located  within  two  or  three 
miles  of  alfalfa  or  clover  fields  should  get  a  few  stands  of  bees,  and 
have  nice  honey  for  his  family,  instead  of  buying  the  filthy  glucose 
jellies  and  other  stuffs  that  are  for  sale  in  every  store." 

JOHN  W.  LABAR,  Erie,  Neosho  county.  "I  have  not  been  engaged 
in  bee-culture  except  as  a  side  issue  and  to  furnish  honey  for  our  own 
table.  We  now  have  twenty -five  colonies.  We  have  taken  500  or 
600  pounds  of  honey  this  fall,  and  the  bottoms  of  hives  seem  to  be 
full.  There  seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of  white  clover  in  this  locality, 
and  it  is  really  the  first  honey  flow  we  get  that  we  can  take  off  for 
table  use,  and  is  the  finest  flavor  of  any  we  get.  This  is  a  business 
that  to  be  successful  must  be  looked  after  in  every  little  particular, 
and  I  believe  it  can  be  made  to  pay  almost  any  year." 

D.  P.  NOE,  Burlington,  Coffey  county.     "The  difficulty  here  is  the 
constant  winds.     Too  many  bees  are  lost  as  they  come  home  laden 
with  honey,  and  swarms  are  thus  diminished  in  workers.     Alfalfa  is  a 
good  honey  plant.     Alsike  clover  is  one  of  the  best.     I  have  visited 
several  bee-keepers  and  asked  them  why  they  do  not  sow  all  kinds  of 
clover  and  plant  linden,  locust  and  fruit-trees,  raspberries  and  black- 
berries.   The  excuse  was,  bees  do  not  pay.     Neither  would  any  kind  of 
stock  pay  on  a  farm  if  it  had  to  hunt  its  own  living." 

S.  B.  McGREW,  Kossuth,  Linn  county.  "  The  study  of  the  honey- 
bee in  its  home  and  ways  has  always  been  a  fascinating  employment 
for  my  leisure  hours.  I  have  completely  failed  to  secure  an  alfalfa 
crop  after  several  trials.  Linn  county  farmers,  so  far  as  I  have 
learned,  have  had  no  success  in  growing  it.  The  worst  and  only  diffi- 
culty that  I  have  met  with  is  the  lack  of  honey-producing  plants  in 
sufficient  quantities  for  large  numbers  of  colonies.  I  have  done  fairly 
well  with  rny  bees  and  would  like  to  learn  if  there  are  any  better  plans 
than  I  have  known." 

OLEY  OLSTON.  Cimarron,  Gray  county.  "  Alfalfa  is  considered  a 
good  honey  plant  in  this  section  upon  irrigated  bottom  river  land." 

J.  P.  EMERY,  Cimarron,  Gray  county.  "  I  purchased  two  stands  of 
Italian  bees  in  spring  of  1897.  That  fall  I  had  increased  them  to  ten 
strong  colonies.  I  took  off  about  500  pounds  of  honey.  Alfalfa  is 
the  main  honey  plant  in  this  section  upon  irrigated  bottom  lands." 

E.  DAVISON,  Garden    City,  Finiiey  county.     "Alfalfa  is  the  only 
honey-producing  plant  that  we  have  in  Finney  county,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  fruit  bloom  in  spring." 

P.  H.  BOLLINGER,  Everest,  Brown  county:  "I  have  forty  stands  of 
bees.  Have  found  Italians  to  be  best.  Have  never  sowed  anything 
but  buckwheat." 


98  OBSERVATIONS   BY   APIARISTS. 

D.  F.  YOUNG,  Long  Island,  Phillips  county:  "I  find  alfalfa  a  great 
honey  producer  where  there  is  a  medium  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
ground.  I  believe  alfalfa  to  be  a  great  honey  producer,  equal  to  white 
clover  or  buckwheat.  Winter  in  cellar,  and  think  this  requires  less 
honey  for  the  winter." 

WM.  M.  BOTTOM,  Dexter,  Cowley  county:  "Alfalfa  is  the  best  honey 
plant  we  have  for  all  seasons ;  not  so  good  as  white  clover  or  buck- 
wheat, but  the  latter  does  not  do  well  here.  In  my  opinion,  as  soon 
as  this  southern  and  western  country  becomes  settled  up,  and  groves- 
and  orchards  are  planted  and  ponds  built,  rainfall  will  increase,  and 
as  the  country  grows  older  the  raising  of  tame  grasses  will  become 
successful,  and  with  it  profitable  bee-culture." 

JOSEPH  HUFFMAN,  Garden  City.  Finney  county:  "Alfalfa  under 
favorable  conditions  is  considered  a  good  honey  plant.  We  have  not 
had  sufficient  irrigation  in  this  section  to  test  its  worth  as  a  honey- 
producing  plant.  Alfalfa  in  this  country  is  a  better  honey-producing- 
plant  than  white  clover,  sweet  clover  or  buckwheat  is  in  the  eastern 
states.  Quality  of  alfalfa  honey  is  the  best." 

A.  L.  DANIELS,  Allendale,  Lyon  county.  "As  to  profit  derived 
from  bees,  have  not  had  enough  to  pay  expenses  and  labor,  but  the 
pleasure  of  having  pure  honey  of  my  own  has  kept  me  at  work/' 

J.  W.  BUTTON,  Glasco,  Cloud  county.  "I  took  1400  pounds  of 
honey  from  twenty-six  stands.  We  have  a  large  amount  of  alfalfa 
here.  I  do  not  think  bees  make  much  honey  from  alfalfa,  as  I 
have  failed  to  find  many  at  work  on  it.  I  find  that  my  bees  make 
more  honey  when  the  corn  is  in  tassel,  but  the  alfalfa  is  in  bloom  at 
the  same  time.  I  have  seen  more  bees  at  work  on  corn  than  anything 
else.  Have  not  given  bees  special  attention,  but  am  beginning  to 
think  it  will  pay  to  givre  them  the  care  they  require." 

CAPT.  J.  H.  WING,  Syracuse,  Hamilton  county  ;  150  colonies.  " Ital- 
ians and  hybrids.  I  have  tried  several  stands  of  pure  Cyprians  and 
find  their  disposition  quite  objectionable.  I  find,  however,  that  bees 
developed  from  these  Cyprians  crossed  with  Italians  or  Carniolans, 
give,  all  things  considered,  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  strains  of  bees. 
Alfalfa  furnishes  our  main  honey  flow.  The  quality  of  the  honey  is 
second  to  none." 

SOME    HIVE    YIELDS. 

Without  any  direct  attempt  at  procuring  the  yields  of  the  differ- 
ent apiaries  within  the  state,  or  securing  the  highest  yields,  the  re- 
ports here  shown  have  come  to  the  department  giving  amounts  of 
honey  produced.  It  is  believed  that  these  reports  will  be  read  with 
interest  and  will  give  a  representative  knowledge  of  what  may  be  ex- 
pected from  bees. 


SOME   BEE   STATISTICS. 


99 


It  is  regretted  that  the  element  of  care  and  attention  could  not  be 
expressed  in  figures  alongside  of  the  reports  shown,  for  the  old  adage, 
"  Keep  your  shop  and  your  shop  will  keep  you,"  is  as  true  in  apiculture 
as  in  any  other  line  of  business. 


NAME. 

ADDRESS. 

Year. 

No. 

stands. 

Yield. 

J  W.  Sutton 

Glasco 

1897 

26 

1400  pounds 

D.  S.  Young 

Long  Island. 

1898 

(   3  new 

64 

S  A   Lakin 

Shaw  . 

1898 

(   2  old 
1 

146 
1  gallon. 

E  Davison 

Garden  City 

T1896 
-{  1897 

5 

50  pounds  comb  per  stand. 
100'pounds  comb  per  stand 

L1898 

40  pound6*  comb  per  stand 

J.  P.  Emery  
H.  H.  Morten 

Cimarron  
Long  Island. 

1898 

24 
11 

500  pounds. 
500  pounds  (alfalfa  honey). 

Robert  Ferguson. 

Galesburg  .... 

$3  to  $7  per  hive  of  twenty  sections 

John  W.  LaBar  

Erie  

25 
40 

500  to  6dO  pounds. 
2000  pounds  (1500  extracted  and  500  comb) 

W.  D.  Fulton  

Garden  City  .  . 

Common  to  have  one  colony  prod'ce  200  Ibs 

R.  L.  Snodgrass  
Mrs.  C.  E.  Anderson, 

Gordon  
Salina  

1895 

60 
12 

5000  pounds. 
1075  pounds. 

C1894 

Average  per  hive,  70  pounds  comb. 

1895 
•  1896 

Average  per  hive,  52  pounds  comb. 

1897 

Average  per  hive,  70  pounds  comb. 

11898 

Av.  per  hive,  39  Ibs.  ;  half  comb,  half  ext. 

F.  H.  Miller  

Great  Bend.  .  . 

28 

1200  pounds. 

R.  W.  Smith  
Robert  Douglas  

Mrs  M  D  Hetzel 

Delphos  
Long  Island.. 



22 
14 

(   1 

40  pounds  per  stand  (alfalfa  honey). 
800  pounds,  at  10  cents. 
72  pounds. 

Mrs.  L.  A.  Carey  

Phillipsburg, 

T1895 
^{1896 
L1897 

I   5 
4 
5 
6 

Nearly  as  well. 
50  pounds. 
300  pounds. 
400  pounds. 

I  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  Mr.  Frank  Rauchfuss,  secretary  of 
the  Colorado  State  Bee-keepers'  Association,  at  the  Omaha  associa- 
tion, and  gained  from  him  the  following  data,  which  will  be  read  with 
interest  by  Kansas  apiarists : 


100 


SOME    BEE    STATISTICS. 


RECORD  OF  COLONY  No.  164,  SEASON  OF  1890. 
By  FRANK  RAUCHFUSS,  secretary  Colorado  State  Bee-keepers'  Association. 


Date. 

WEATHER. 

Max. 

temp. 

Min. 
temp. 

Loss. 

Gain. 

Total 
weight. 

June    8 

Clear  and  warm  (or)  

88° 

47° 

60l/2 

9 

Clear  and  warm 

93 

57 

% 

60 

10. 

Cloudy  and  warm  

97 

45 

Yz 



59Vi 

11 

Cloudy  and  windy  (6)  . 

97 

48 

y. 

59 

12 

Clear  and  hot  (c) 

99 

50 

\Va 

60  Yz 

13 

Cloudy,  and  strong  wind 

87 

46 

l/9 

61 

14. 

Clear  and  warm  

86 

60 

3 

64 

15 

Clear,  and  strong  wind  after  noon 

87 

45 

1 

65 

16. 

Rain  and  wind  part  of  day  

86 

55 

3 

63 

17. 

Clear  and  hot      ...            ... 

101 

55 

10 

78 

r    18 

Clear  and  hot 

98 

55 

g 

86 

19 

Clear  and  hot  (d)     

99 

53 

....  .... 

8 

94 

20 

Clear  and  hot 

105 

50 

8 

102 

21 

Clear  and  hot  

101 

55 

6 

108 

22 

Clear  and  hot,  cloudy  after  noon. 

103 

65 

' 

g 

114 

23 

Clear  and  hot  (e)  

107 

77 

*  * 

5 

146 

24.. 

Clear  and  hot,  wind,  and  cloudy  after  noon.. 

109 

78 

5 

151 

25 

ICO 

65 

5 

156 

26 

Clear  and  hot  (/"). 

100 

70 

8 

164 

27.. 

28 

Clear  and  hot,  cloudy  and  cooler  after  noon  .  . 
Clear  and  cooler 

105 
99 

65 



7 
g 

171 
177 

29 

Clear  and  warm  

100 

70 

3 

180 

30 

Cloudy  and  cooler          .  .            

94 

70 

2 

182 

July    1  . 

Clear  and  warm,  small  shower  after  noon.... 

100 

69 

2 

184 

Clear  and  warm,  storm  after  noon  (q) 

102 

69 

% 

119 

3 

Clear  and  warm 

98 

67 

1 

118 

4 

Clear  and  warm          .          

105 

72 

'  *  "  

118 

5 

Clear  and  warm  cloudy  after  noon 

106 

73 

118 

6 

Clear  and  warm  .        

106 

74 

Yz 

11814 

7 

Clear  and  warm 

102 

71 

Yz 

118 

8 

Clear  and  warm  

104 

79 

V* 

llbYz 

9. 

Clear  and  warm,  some  wind,  and  cooler  

108 

76 

Wz 

121 

10 

Clear  and  hot  (h)  

110 

74 

lYz 

122  Yz 

11 

Clear  and  hot 

105 

71 

lYz 

124 

12 

Clear  and  hot  

107 

65 

lYz 

125  Yz 

13 

Clear  and  hot,  windy  and  cooler  after  noon 

106 

75 

Wz 

130 

14 

Cloudy  and  cooler  

104 

72 

2Yz 

132  Yz 

15 

Clear  and  warm,  strong  wind  nfter  noon 

103 

75 

5/2 

137  Vi 

16.. 
17 

Clear  and  warm,  rain  late  in  afternoon  
Clear  and  warm,  cloudy  and  cooler  after  noon, 

103 
100 

69 
70 

8tf 

3 

141 
144 

18.. 
19.. 
20 

Clear  and  warm,  severe  hailst'm  after  noon  (i)  , 
Clear  and  warm,  cloudy  and  cooler  after  noon. 

101 
106 
103 

60 
84 
75 



1 

Yz 
Yz 

145 

145/2 
146 

21 

Clear  and  warm,  rain  after  noon.           

103 

74 

2Yz 

U8Yz 

22 

92 

67 

2 

150  Yz 

23 

Clear  and  warm,  cloudy  after  noon   

90 

72 

150^2 

24 

Clear  and  warm  rain  afternoon  (j) 

94 

72 

y* 

151 

25 

Clear  and  warm                         

100 

73 

i 

152 

26 

Clear  and  warm  cloudy  and  cooler  after  noon, 

99 

70 

2Yz 

15454 

27 

Clear  and  hot         .          

111 

73 

2/2 

157 

28.. 
29 

Clear  and  hot,  windy  and  cooler  after  noon  .  . 
Clear  and  hot,  windy  and  cooler  after  noon  .  . 

109 
107 

80 
60 



2 
2 

159 
161 

30 

Clear  and  hot  windy  and  cooler  after  noon 

98 

76 

2 

163 

31 

103 

59 

3H 

IQVA 

Aug.    1.. 

Clear  and  hot,  windy  and  cooler  after  noon  .  . 
Clear  and  hot    

104 

100 

63 
63 



2tt 

3/2 

169 

172  Yz 

3 

Cloudy  and  warm. 

100 

55 

3 

175i<£ 

4 

101 

58 

1/4 

177 

5 

Clear  and  warm  (Ar) 

105 

55 

\Yz 

114l/2 

g 

Clear  and  warm 

105 

65 

lYz 

116 

7 

Clear  and  warm,  windy  and  cloudy  (I) 

103 

60 

2Yz 

HbV2 

g 

Cloudy  and  cool 

99 

66 

lYz 

120 

9 

Clear  and  warm  

101 

65 

4 

124 

10 

Clear  and  warm 

104 

57 

3Yz 

127  Yz 

11 

Cloudy  and  cool,  some  rain  after  noon  

103 

56 

2Yz 

130 

12 

Cloudy  and  cool,  some  rain  after  noon. 

99 

58 

2 

132 

13. 

Cloudy  and  cool,  some  rain  after  noon  

86 

59 

1 

133 

14 

Cloudy  and  cool,  some  rain  after  noon. 

99 

59 

Yz 

133  Yz 

15 

Cloudy  and  cool 

96 

59 

133  Yz 

16 

Rain  

95 

54 

1 

132^ 

17 

Clear  and  warm    .... 

96 

50 

3 

135/2 

18 

Cloudy  cool,  and  wind 

86 

52 

V* 

135 

19 

Rain       

80 

55 

1 

134 

20 

Fog  clear  and  warm  after  noon 

87 

50 

3 

137 

21 

97 

60 

lYz 

138  Yz 

22.. 
23.. 

Clear  and  warm,  some  rain  after  noon  
Clear,  cool,  and  wind  .  .  . 

95 
97 

54 

50 

1/2 

140 
140 

SOME  BEE  STATISTICS!  ., 


101 


RECORD  OF  COLONY  No.  164,  SEASON  OK  1^90-cCovc^U'DBD,     ,   ,    , 


Date. 

WEATHER. 

"  Max." 
temp. 

'  "Mini 
temp. 

Loss. 

Gain. 

Total 
weight. 

AUK.  24.. 

Clear  and  warm  

98 

57 

0 

142 

25 

Clear  and  cool 

97 

57 

2 

144   ' 

26.. 

Clear  and  warm  

99 

50 

3 

1471  1 

27. 

Clear  and  cool 

97 

52 

1 

148*i 

28.. 

Clear  and  cool  

105 

51 

149" 

29.. 

Clear  and  warm 

98 

53 

2% 

151% 

30 

Clear  and  warm 

109 

60 

3 

154  1/ 

31.. 
Sept.   1 

Clear  and  warm,  cloudy  and  cooler  after  noon, 
Clear  and  warm 

98 
103 

59 
59 

1H 

2  Ye 

156 

158  V* 

2 

Cloudy  and  cool,  some  rain  

90 

50 

yz 

159 

3.. 

Cloudy  and  cool    

95 

49 

159 

4.. 

Clear  and  warm  

97 

60 

2 

161 

5.. 

Clear,  cool,  and  high  wind 

100 

62 

161 

6.. 

Cloudy,  cool,  and  some  rain  

94 

52 

% 

161  % 

7.. 

Clear  and  warm  .     . 

94 

44 

1 

162% 

8 

Clear  and  warm 

97 

x    44 

114 

164 

9.. 

Clear  and  warm  

101 

49 



3 

167 

10 

Clear  and  warm 

96 

54 

3% 

170  14 

11.. 

Clear  and  warm  

101 

36 



2% 

173 

12 

Cloudy  and  cool 

76 

34 

1 

172 

13.. 

Clear  and  warm  

97 

38 

1/2 

172% 

14. 

Clear  and  warm 

94 

39 

172% 

15.. 

Clear  and  warm  

98 

46 

% 

173 

16.. 

Cloudy  and  cool    ... 

98 

58 

% 

172% 

17.. 

Clear  and  warm  

96 

51 

% 

173 

18.. 

Cloudy,  high  wind  (m  )  

75 

39 

98 

Total  of  honey  secured,  182%  pounds. 

(a)  Large  double  swarm,  put  in  ten-frame  hive,  on  full  sheets  of  foundation,  extracting 
super  with  ten  combs  given. 

(6)  Alfalfa  in  full  bloom. 

(c)  Bees  flying  well  until  seven  in  the  evening. 

(d)  Alfalfa  suffering  on  account  of  lack  of  water. 

(e)  Another  extracting  super  added  ;  tare,  twenty-seven  pounds. 

(/)  Small  shower  late  in  the  afternoon. 

(g)  Extracted  65%  pounds  of  honey. 

(h)  Second  crop  of  alfalfa  in  full  bloom. 

(i)  Hailstorm  destroyed  most  of  the  blossoms  within  two  miles. 

O')  Bees  commencing  to  work  on  cleome. 

(k)  Extracted  sixty-four  pounds  from  scale  hive. 

(0  Cleome  in  full  bloom, 
(m)  Extracted  fifty-three  pounds  from  scale  hive. 


102  ON,E  .TEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES. 


ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

By  A.  H.  DUFF,  Larned,  Kan. 

PLAIN,    SIMPLE,    PRACTICAL    AND   ECONOMICAL   METHODS    OF    HANDLING    THEM    FOR 
PROFIT,    ESPECIALLY    INTENDED    FOR   THE    BEGINNER. 

The  first  question  may  be  asked,  Who  may  keep  bees,  and  where 
may  they  be  kept?  Any  one  permanently  located  may  keep  bees, 
whether  he  may  be  a  farmer,  lawyer,  doctor,  minister,  or  a  member  of 
any  other  vocation,  who  may  have  a  few  spare  minutes  occasionally  to 
look  after  the  wants  of  his  bees.  Bees  may  be  kept  successfully  to 
some  extent  almost  anywhere,  either  in  the  city  or  country,  and  will 
be  found  profitable  if  attention  is  given  them  in  the  right  manner. 
Some  localities  are  better  than  others  for  bees,  but  there  is  scarcely 
any  locality  that  man  can  exist,  that  bees  will  not  do  likewise.  A 
few  hives  of  bees  may  be  kept,  and  require  but  little  attention,  that 
will  furnish  all  the  honey  necessary  for  family  use,  and  at  a  very 
slight  expense.  Bees  work  for  nothing,  and  board  themselves  at  the 
same  time,  so  that  the  principal  requirement  is  a  storehouse  for  them, 
properly  arranged  to  suit  their  habits. 

WHAT   CONSTITUTES    A    COLONY   OF    BEES. 

A  fair  working  colony  of  bees  consists  of  about  25,000  to  35,000 
worker  bees,  a  few  hundred  drones,  and  a  queen.  During  springtime, 
and  until  after  the  honey  season,  they  attain  their  greatest  number, 
which  may  considerably  exceed  the  above,  after  which  time  they  gradu- 
ally decrease  until  they  reach  their  lowest  number,  during  the  winter 
months.  This  may  fall  far  below  the  above  number.  Ordinarily, 
a  colony  of  bees  reaches  its  lowest  number  in  March,  and  its  highest 
number  in  June.  Drones  are  bred  only  during  the  honey  or  swarm- 
ing season  after  which  they  are  killed  off  by  the  worker  bees.  The 
average  life  of  the  worker  is  about  forty-five  days,  and  the  average  life 
of  the  queen  about  two  years. 

There  is  but  one  queen  in  each  colony  and  phe  is  the  only  fully 
developed  female  in  it.  She  is  the  mother  of  the  entire  colony,  laying 
all  the  eggs  that  produce  every  bee  in  the  hive.  Two  kinds  of  eggs 
are  deposited  by  the  queen,  one  kind  being  fertile  and  the  other 
infertile.  Three  kinds  of  bees  are  hatched  from  these  eggs,  the 
fertile  egg  producing  queens  and  worker  bees,  and  the  infertile  egg, 
drones.  The  fertility  of  the  queen  remains  the  same  throughout  her 
life,  never  receiving  fertilization  but  once ;  hence,  produces  the  same 
stock  during  her  existence.  The  queen  has  a  sting,  but  seldom  uses 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES.  103 

it  except  in  battle  with  other  queens.  Two  queens  cannot  occupy 
the  same  domain ;  their  presence  is  a  signal  to  each  other  for  battle, 
and  their  meeting,  under  any  circumstances,  is  sure  death  to  one  or 
the  other. 

The  drones  are  the  male  bees.  They  do  no  work  whatever  in  the 
hive  :  nature  did  not  intend  they  should.  They  are  not  provided  with 
a  weapon  of  defense,  neither  provided  with  a  honey  sac  to  carry  honey, 
nor  a  tongue  to  reach  the  nectar  in  the  flowers,  nor  pollen  baskets  to 
carry  pollen,  nor  wax  pockets  to  secrete  wax.  They  are  simply  invet- 
erate loafers  in  the  hive.  They  come  forth  from  the  hive  during  tbo 
middle  of  the  day,  and  at  the  same  time  virgin  queens  take  their 
flight. 

The  worker  bee  is  truly  the  "busy  bee,"  and  in  sex  is  an  undevel- 
oped female,  but  is  usually  termed  neuter.  The  busy  bee  does  all 
the  work ;  it  gathers  all  the  honey,  the  pollen,  the  propolis  or  bee-glue, 
carries  water,  secretes  wax  and  builds  comb,  prepares  food  and  nurses 
the  young  brood,  defends  the  hive,  cleans  house  and  performs  various 
other  duties.  If  the  workers  ever  take  a  rest,  either  night  or  day,  from 
all  the  duties  of  the  hive,  no  one  has  ever  yet  found  it  out. 

The  worker  bees  may  be  placed  in  three  different  classes,  namely : 
The  honey  gatherers,  the  comb  builders,  and  the  nurse  bees.  They 
are  thus  classed  as  to  age.  The  first  work  the  young  bee  performs, 
after  it  is  two  or  three  days  old,  is  to  prepare  food  and  feed  the  larva 
in  the  cells.  The  next  duty,  when  ten  or  twelve  days  old,  is  to  secrete 
wax  and  build  comb.  When  about  twenty  days  old  they  become  field 
workers.  This  applies  to  a  well-regulated  colony  that  is  in  first-class 
condition  in  all  respects. 

In  thus  briefly  going  over  the  work  of  handling  bees  for  one  year, 
we  will  begin  with  spring  management,  follow  with  summer  and 
autumn  management,  and  close  with  winter  management.  As  an- 
nounced in  starting  out,  our  object  principally  was  to  help  the 
beginner,  the  small  bee-keeper,  and  farm  bee-keeping  generally  ;  hence 
it  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  considerable  ground  of  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  bee-keeping,  which  to  the  well-informed  apiarist  would  seem, 
to  some  extent,  stale  reading;  yet  when  we  take  into  consideration 
that  this  work  will  go  into  the  hands  of  hundreds  uninformed  on  this 
subject  to  one  informed,  we  hope  that  the  expert  will  bear  with  us. 

EARLY    SPRING    MANAGEMENT   OF   BEES. 

The  most  critical  period  of  the  whole  year  with  bees  is  in  early 
spring,  just  about  the  time  warm  days  begin  to  put  in  an  appearance. 
With  the  long  confinement  of  winter  and  the  endurance  of  severe 
weather,  bees  are  very  tender  and  easily  discouraged,  and,  if  very 
weik,  they  will  dwindle  down  and  become  less  in  numbers  so  rapidly 


104  ONE   YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 

that  the  hatching  brood  at  this  time  will  not  keep  up  the  force  of  bees. 
This  results  from  improper  fall  and  winter  management,  of  which  I 
will  have  something  to  say  later  on.  Colonies  of  bees  should  be  of 
proper  strength  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  at  no  time  are  weak 
colonies  desirable.  We  may  not  have  this  entirely  under  our  control 
during  the  winter  season,  but  largely  so;  for  if  we  go  into  winter 
quarters  with  weak  stocks  we  will  surely  come  out  with  them  much 
weaker  in  spring. 

If  colonies  are  reasonably  strong  in  early  spring,  and  have  good 
fertile  queens,  with  plenty  of  provisions  in  store,  there  is  nothing  to 
fear  with  regard  to  their  coming  through  in  good  condition  and  prov- 
ing profitable  the  following  honey  season.  In  making  an  examination 
of  colonies  at  this  time,  ascertain,  first,  if  the  queen  is  present,  and 
if  she  is  depositing  eggs,  and  if  brood-rearing  is  progressing  to  some 
extent,  and,  also,  as  to  amount  of  honey  in  the  hive.  If  a  colony 
is  found  without  a  queen  now,  and  no  queen  at  hand  to  supply  it,  it 
is  absolutely  useless  to  allow  it  to  remain  as  a  colony.  The  proper 
thing  to  do  is  to  unite  it  with  some  other  colony  that  has  a  queen. 
In  such  a  case  as  this  we  can  strengthen  some  weak  colony  that  has  a 
queen,  by  uniting  with  it.  The  process  of  uniting  would  be  simply 
placing  the  queenless  hive  on  top  of  the  other  hive,  supposing  of 
course  that  we  use  the  common  frame  hive,  when  the  bees  will  almost 
immediately  go  below  to  the  queen.  If  any  remain  on  the  combs, 
they  may  be  brushed  off  with  a  stiff  feather  and  the  upper  hive  re- 
moved. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  contract  the  space  in  the  hives,  and 
especially  so  in  case  of  weak  colonies,  by  division  boards,  which  acr 
company  almost  all  frame  hives.  This  economizes  the  natural 
warmth  of  the  bees,  and  enables  them  to  rear  more  brood,  and  keeps 
them  in  more  comfortable  quarters.  In  handling  the  frames  of  comb 
at  this  season  of  the  year  we  should  be  very  particular  when  return- 
ing them  to  the  hive  to  put  them  back  in  the  same  place  and  position 
they  formerly  occupied,  so  that  the  brood  will  be  in  a  compact  form 
and  not  separated  or  changed ;  for  in  case  it  should  be  thus  separated 
and  the  cluster  of  bees  were  not  able  to  cover  it  thoroughly,  it  would 
of  course  be  lost. 

In  early  spring  bees  should  be  inspected  and  handled  only  on 
warm  days,  when  they  are  flying  freely.  In  no  case  should  hives  be 
opened  up  and  the  bees  disturbed  at  any  other  time.  In  every  case 
after  handling  a  colony  the  hive  should  be  carefully  and  thoroughly 
closed,  and  during  this  period  of  springtime  the  entrances  to  all  hives 
may  be  contracted  to  a  small  space  with  benefit  to  the  bees. 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES.  105 

STIMULATIVE   FEEDING. 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  every  colony  has  an  abundance  of  reserve 
stores  in  the  hive,  and  that  reserve  should  consist  of  ten  or  fifteen 
pounds  of  sealed  honey.  If  they  are  short  of  this  amount,  they  should 
be  fed.  After  warm  weather  predominates  it  is  no  trouble  to  feed 
bees,  but  until  this  occurs,  but  little  if  any  feeding  of  syrup  can  safely 
be  done.  The  term  "stimulative  feeding"  applies  to  feeding  for 
brood  rearing,  and  is  done  at  regular  intervals  during  springtime, 
when  the  bees  are  unable  to  gather  honey  on  account  of  either  cool 
weather,  or  a  shortage  of  nectar  in  the  flowers  so  they  cannot  gather 
honey.  Queens  invariably  stop  laying  eggs  and  brood-rearing  ceases 
when  the  honey  flow  stops,  and  then  again  begin  the  rearing  of  brood 
when  the  bees  begin  gathering  honey.  Now  in  stimulative  feeding 
we  imitate  a  natural  flow  of  honey,  and  if  we  feed  thus  at  times  when 
the  bees  are  idle,  the  queens  keep  right  on  laying  eggs  to  their  ut- 
most capacity,  governed  of  course  by  the  strength  of  the  colony. 

Food  for  bees  should  consist  of  the  best  grades  of  sugar ;  granu- 
lated sugar  is  the  best,  and  perhaps  the  cheapest.  To  prepare  syrup 
for  this  purpose,  add  water  to  sugar,  equal  parts  of  each  by  measure, 
and  heat  thoroughly,  but  do  not  boil  it,  but  bring  it  nearly  to  the  boil- 
ing-point. It  may  be  fed  warm,  but  not  hot.  For  stimulative  feeding, 
about  half  a  pint  to  a  strong  colony  is  sufficient  each  and  every  day, 
given  during  such  times  as  the  bees  are  idle,  from  the  time  warm 
weather  opens  in  spring,  until  the  beginning  of  the  natural  honey  flow 
of  the  season.  Colonies  thus  brought  up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
honey  harvest  are  fully  twice  as  strong  as  those  not  so  treated,  and  the 
result  is  that  these  colonies  will  store  hundreds  of  pounds  of  honey 
while  the  others  store  tens. 

Various  kinds  of  feeders  are  used  for  feeding  bees.  The  best  and 
most  simple,  and  a  feeder  that  any  boy  can  make,  is  made  from  a 
block  of  soft  wood  filled  with  holes  one  or  two  inches  in  diameter  put 
nearly  but  not  quite  through  the  block,  thus  forming  a  trough,  and 
the  partitions  between  the  holes  are  footholds  for  the  bees,  and  pre- 
vent them  from  drowning  in  the  syrup.  This  feeder  may  be  made 
just  the  size  to  fit  on  top  of  the  hive,  covering  the  entire  top  of  same, 
and  a  few  holes  in  center  of  block  put  clear  through  for  the  bees  to 
come  up  to  get  the  feed  and  then  pass  down  again.  This  feeder 
should  be  incased  in  an  upper  story  added  to  the  hive,  with  the  lid 
on  same  to  confine  the  bees  inside  and  also  prevent  other  bees  getting 
in  from  the  outside.  The  proper  time  to  feed  bees  during  the  day  is 
very  late  in  the  evening,  and  as  late  as  we  can  see  to  do  the  work. 
Where  many  colonies  are  together  it  causes  quite  an  uproar,  and 
sometimes  when  fed  during  the  day  it  produces  robbing,  but  is  always 


106  ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 

done  with  safety  thus  in  the  evening,  as  the  syrup  is  all  stored  away  at 
night,  and  all  is  quiet  in  the  morning. 

The  hives  which  are  in  general  use,  and  which  are  hervj  illustrated, 
have  a  capacity  of  about  2000  cubic  inches.  It  is  not  presumable 
that  the  brood  chamber  alone  of  this  dimension  is  large  enough  to 
contain  extremely  strong  colonies  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  flow, 
or  up  to  the  time  we  would  add  surplus  boxes.  It  would  be  a  fatal 
mistake  to  try  thus  to  confine  such  stocks  of  bees  in  a  single  story 
alone,  and  the  result  would  be  a  severe  case  of  swarming.  The 
proper  method  to  pursue  would  be  to  add  another  story  the  same  in 
all  respects  as  that  of  the  brood  chamber,  with  a  set  of  frames  of 
comb,  or  foundation  comb,  and  use  both  stories  for  brood  and  honey 
combined,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  harvest  put  all  brood 
frames  below  and  add  two  tiers  of  section  boxes  to  take  the  place  of 
the  upper  story  removed,  if  comb  honey  is  the  object ;  if  to  be  run  for 
extracted  honey,  retain  the  upper  story,  but  put  all  brood  frames  be- 
low and  bring  up  from  below  all  frames  of  honey.  No  harm  what- 
ever comes  of  having  some  brood  in  the  combs  above,  for  the  extractor 
will  remove  the  honey  without  injuring  the  brood,  if  the  extractor  is 
properly  handled. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  at  all  times  that  strong  colonies  are  the 
means  which  bring  about  large  honey  crops,  and  the  ordinary  method 
with  the  small  bee-keeper,  of  letting  his  bees  do  as  they  please,  and  as 
they  can,  without  his  help,  will  not  bring  the  immense  profits  ob- 
tained in  many  instances  by  those  who  get  a  proper  understanding  of 
their  management  and  apply  the  same.  I  do  not  pretend  to  say  that 
bees  will  not  be  of  some  value  and  give  good  returns  frequently  on 
the  let-alone  plan ;  but  if  a  thing  is  worth  doing  at  all,  it  is  worth 
doing  right,  and  this  rule  is  not  a  failure  in  the  management  of  bees 
by  any  means. 

THE    BEE    VEIL   AND    SMOKER. 

The  apiarist  equipped  with  bee  veil  and  smoker  considers  him- 
self master  of  the  situation.  The  bee  veil  is  but  little  used  at  present 
by  the  practical  worker  in  the  apiary ;  it  has  to  a  great  extent  been 
laid  aside  with  the  rubber  gloves,  which  have  also  been  used  largely. 
But  every  one  who  keeps  bees  should  have  a  bee  veil  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, and  not  this  alone,  but  he  should  always  have  a  veil  to  accommo- 
date visitors,  and  in  every  case  of  this  kind  bring  it  into  use.  A  veil 
made  of  any  veiling  stuff  will  do.  and  one  for  rough  and  ready  use 
may  be  made  from  common  mosquito  netting.  A  rubber  band  should 
be  in  the  top  to  hold  it  firmly  around  the  hat  crown. 

The  principal  defense  lies  in  the  smoker,  being  the  apiarist's  clos- 
est and  best  friend.  No  colony  of  bees  will  put  up  a  fight  against 


ONE    YEAR    AMONG    THE    BEES. 


107 


FIG.  8.   Bee  veil  and  smoker. 

smoke  properly  applied.  Bees,  when  smoked,  will  become  excited, 
and  they  seem  to  conclude  that  they  are  going  to  be  robbed,  and  they 
readily  give  up  and  make  a  rush  to  the  combs  for  as  much  honey  as 
they  can  contain,  and  thus  fill  themselves  full,  and  when  in  this  con- 
dition they  cannot,  or  at  least  do  not,  attempt  to  sting.  Any  one  can 
master  bees  by  simply  learning  how  to  use  the  smoker  on  them.  The 
smoker  should  not  be  brought  into  use  every  lime  you  are  handling 
bees,  for  almost  throughout  the  entire  honey  season  they  may  be  han- 
dled as  well,  or  even  better,  without  it.  As  for  myself,  I  scarcely  use 
it  at  all  during  this  period. 

THE    HONEY    SEASON. 

All  bee-keepers,  as  a  rule,  know  just  about  the  time  the  principal 
honey  flow  of  the  season  begins  in  their  locality.  While  the  time  may 
vary  a  little  in  different  localities,  yet  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  the 
bulk  of  the  surplus  honey  crop  of  the  United  States  is  obtained  dur- 


108  ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

ing  the  month  of  June.  There  seems  to  be  something  about  the 
balmy  atmosphere  of  the  month  of  June  that  not  only  deposits  more 
nectar  in  the  flowers,  but  of  a  better  quality,  and  hence  June  honey, 
both  in  quantity  and  quality,  excels  all  others. 

If,  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  season,  we  decide  that  we  do  not 
want  an  increase  in  the  number  of  our  colonies,  but  that  a  crop  of 
honey  is  the  only  thing  in  view,  we  must  bend  our  energy  in  that  di- 
rection, and  work  accordingly.  To  obtain  the  largest  honey  crop,  it 
is  necessary  to  prevent  swarming  to  a  great  extent,  if  not  exclusively. 
The  idea  is  to  put  our  entire  force  of  bees  down  to  storing  honey,  and 
no  foolishness  in  the  way  of  new  swarms  to  start  up  housekeeping  at 
the  expense  of  the  honey  crop. 

Swarming  is  prevented  in  more  than  one  way,  and  the  proper  thing 
to  do  right  at  the  beginning,  and  that  time  is  when  the  colony  becomes 
so  strong  that  they  are  cramped  for  room  in  the  lower  story  or  brood 
chamber,  is  to  add  the  upper  story,  even  if  a  little  in  advance  of  the 
honey  harvest.  The  first  thing  that  puts  bees  in  the  notion  of  swarm- 
ing is  lack  of  room  in  the  hive,  and  at  all  times  throughout  the  entire 
season  this  must  be  carefully  looked  after,  and  abundance  of  storage 
room  given  at  all  times  when  bees  are  storing  honey.  This  alone  is 
the  principal  secret  of  large  honey  crops.  It  not  only  prevents  swarm- 
ing to  a  great  extent,  but  the  bees  are  never  prevented  from  storing 
honey  for  want  of  space. 

Space  alone  will  not  prevent  swarming,  but  only  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent. The  principal  method  used  to  prevent  swarms  is  the  removal 
of  all  queen  cells  at  the  proper  time  from  the  combs.  Bees  will 
swarm  in  eight  days  after  the  construction  of  queen  cells  begins. 
These  cells  become  very  visible  after  they  are  five  or  six  days  old,  and 
may  easily  be  found  and  removed  from  the  combs.  The  removal  of 
these  cells  will  prevent  the  swarm  from  issuing  except  in  very  rare 
cases — so  rare,  that  it  need  not  be  taken  into  consideration.  If  these 
cells  are  allowed  to  remain,  the  young  queens  reach  maturity  in  the 
larval  state  in  eight  days,  at  which  time  the  cells  are  sealed  over,  and 
the  swarm  is  due  to  come  off.  Hence,  there  will  be  seen  the  time 
when  action  must  be  taken  for  their  removal  to  prevent  the  swarm 
from  issuing.  In  most  cases  the  bees  will  immediately  again  begin 
constructing  more  queen  cells,  to  be  followed  by  removal  as  before. 
It  is  only  exceptional  colonies  that  will  thus  torment  us  in  trying  to 
swarm,  as  the  largest  per  cent,  of  them  will  be  content  to  store  honey 
without  attempting  to  swarm,  if  they  have  plenty  of  storage  room. 

If  in  thus  making  an  examination  of  the  frames  of  comb  and  re- 
moving the  queen  cells  we  should  happen  to  overlook  a  cell,  we  will 
surely  be  rewarded  with  a  swarm,  for  one  cell  alone  in  the  hive  is 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


109 


fully  sufficient  to  bring  out  a  swarm.  In  such  cases  we  may  return 
the  swarm,  but  the  cell  must  be  hunted  up  and  taken  out  or  the  swarm 
will  come  again.  The  most  convenient  time  to  secure  this  cell  is 
when  the  swarm  is  out  of  the  hive,  as  it  can  be  more  readily  found, 
the  bees  being  out  of  the  way.  When  bees  thus  take  the  swarming 
fever  they  will  not  do  as  well  at  storing  honey  as  they  do  otherwise, 
and  in  some  cases  of  the  most  persistent  swarmers  I  would  advise 
hiving  them  in  a  new  hive  to  themselves.  And  also  in  cases  of  ex- 
tremely strong  colonies,  that  seem  to  be  so  numerous  that  a  two-story 
hive  will  scarcely  contain  them,  if  such  colonies  attempt  to  swarm 
I  would  hive  them  also,  as  such  swarms  will  give  better  results  sepa- 
rated. 

HIVES    AND    APPLIANCES   FOR   HONEY    PRODUCTION. 

The  illustration  herewith  (fig.  9)  represents  modern  hives  of  the 
latest  pattern  now  in  general  use  in  the  production  of  honey.  The 
hive  proper  is  a  modification  of  the  old  Langstroth  hive,  the  frame  be- 
ing identical,  or  nearly  so,  to  that  of  the  former.  The  frame  seen  at 


FIG.  9.    Hives  and  appliances  for  honey  production. 


110  ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 

7,  leaning  against  the  front  of  the  hives,  in  dimension  is  seventeen  and 
five-eighths  inches  long,  and  nine  and  one-eighth  inches  deep.  The 
body  of  hive  is  designed  to  hold  eight  of  these  frames  and  is  a  box 
without  top  or  bottom,  nine  and  a  half  inches  deep,  thirteen  and  seven- 
eighths  inches  wide,  and  twenty  inches  long,  outside  measure.  The 
inside  top  edge  of  the  end  pieces  are  rabbeted  out,  thus  letting  the 
top  bar  of  frame  drop  down  one-fourth  of  an  inch  lower  than  the  up- 
per edge  of  hive.  To  facilitate  handling,  metal  rabbets  should  be 
used  for  the  frames  to  rest  on,  by  cutting  the  rabbet  One-fourth  of  an 
inch  deeper  than  actual  measurements,  and  then  tacking  in  place  a 
piece  of  folded  tin  to  the  required  height.  The  entrances  to  these 
hives  are  made  by  nailing  slats  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  to  the 
bottom  board,  at  the  sides  and  at  the  back  end,  the  front  being  left 
open. 

In  the  illustration  (fig.  9)  11  is  a  hive  equipped  for  extracted 
honey,  and  12  is  one  rigged  out  for  comb  honey.  Having  just  arrived 
at  the  honey  season,  we  will  first  take  up  the  subject  of  comb-honey 
production.  .  As  previously  stated,  in  order  to  reap  a  rich  harvest  of 
honey  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  colonies  of  bees  in  proper 
condition,  by  being  strong  in  numbers,  having  a  large  amount  of 
brood  in  the  hive,  and  the  queen  laying  eggs  at  the  rate  of  from  1000 
to  3000  a  day. 

To  raise  comb  honey,  and  have  it  in  good  marketable  shape,  we 
must  use  the  section  box.  And  right  here  the  question  may  arise, 
Will  it  pay  the  small  bee-keeper  or  the  beginner  to  go  into  all  these 
little  details  and  bring  into  use  all  these  fixtures  we  have  here  brought 
out  ?  In  answer  to  this,  I  will  say  emphatically  that  it  will,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  test  the  matter  once  to  convince  you  fully.  We 
have  simply  here  shown  a  few  articles,  what  we  consider  actually 
necessary  for  the  small  bee-keeper,  and  nothing  more.  The  preserv- 
ing qualities  of  comb  honey  lies  in  the  section  box  exclusively,  and 
in  no  other  manner  can  it  be  retained  any  length  of  time  in  perfect 
condition.  The  section  boxes  in  general  use  are  made  to  hold  one 
pound  of  comb  honey.  They  are  four  and  one-fourth  inches  square 
and  one  and  seven-eighth  inches  wide.  These  section  boxes,  and 
crates  holding  the  same  on  the  hives,  are  shown  at  12  •  5  is  the 
brood  chamber,  or  lower  story  of  hive ;  ,£,  just  above  it,  is  the  first 
crate  of  sections,  and  3  is  the  second  crate  of  sections,  and  what  we 
call  a  hive  with  two  tiers  of  sections.  Each  crate  holds  twenty-four 
sections,  and  two  tiers  will  make  forty-eight  one-pound  boxes  occupy- 
ing the  hive  at  one  time.  We  do  not  use  less  than  one  tier  of  sec- 
tions, and  scarcely  more  than  two  tiers. 

The  amount  of  storage  capacity  used  depends  upon  ihe  strength  of 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE   BEES.  Ill 

the  colony.  The  colony  should  be  strong  enough  to  occupy  at  once 
the  boxes  given,  and  it  is  only  a  very  small  per  cent,  of  colonies  that 
can  take  two  tiers  of  boxes  at  the  beginning,  but,  in  most  cases,  one 
tier  of  sections  is  first  placed  on  the  hive,  and  when  the  bees  are  well 
at  work  in  them,  say  half  full  or  more,  then  add  the  second  tier.  This 
second  tier  is  not  usually  placed  on  top  of  the  first,  but  the  first  is 
raised  up,  and  the  empty  one  is  placed  under,  as  in  this  manner  the 
bees  being  already  in  the  upper  one,  must  occupy  both  tiers  at  the 
same  time,  when  otherwise  they  would  be  slow  to  go  above  into  the 
empty  boxes.  In  fig.  9,  8  shows  a  crate  of  boxes  standing  on  end  with 
a  few  boxes  removed  (and,  by  the  way,  we  here  show  two  kinds 
of  crates,  which  we  will  explain  further  on,  but  will  say  the  one  rep- 
resented as  being  .on  the  hive  is  the  "section  holder"  crate,  and  the 
one  standing  on  end  is  the  "T"  crate  or  super);  2,  hanging  on  the 
corner  of  hive,  is  one  of  the  section  holders,  and  is  again  shown  on  the 
top  of  hive  holding  three  sections,  one  being  out  of  place.  There  are 
six  of  these,  holding  four  sections  each,  in  a  crate.  The  sections  as 
seen  on  the  hive  are  furnished  with  foundation  comb,  and  the  manner 
of  doing  this  work  is  seen  in  the  following  cut. 

THE    PARKER   FOUNDATION   FASTENER. 

Figure  10  shows  the  "Parker"  foundation  fastener  No.  4;  3  is  a 
section  rest  and  gauge  to  hold  the  section  in  place,  so  that  the  fast- 
ener may  strike  the  section  exactly  in  the  center,  and  by  pressure 
fasten  the  foundation  in  place ;  1  is  a  section  fully  supplied  with 
foundation,  at  least  according  to  my  notion.  Some  may  differ  a  little 
with  me  in  the  use  of  so  much  foundation  in  a  section,  as  many  use 


FIG.  10,    Parker  foundation  fastener. 


112  ONE    YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES. 

merely  a  starter  of  about  half  an  inch  at  the  top  only,  but  perhaps 
all  will  agree  with  me  that  the  double  starter  is  the  best.  I  fasten  a 
three-eighths-inch  piece  on  the  bottom,  and  bring  it  to  within  one- 
half  of  an  inch  at  the  bottom,  as  is  shown  in  cut,  with  the  top  starter. 
As  the  bees  work  it  out,  it  will  stretch  until  it  will  nearly,  but  not 
quite,  meet,  if  the  best  thin  foundation  is  used.  It  will  thus  make 
the  best  union,  and  a  section  thus  furnished  will  make  a  good,  smooth, 
solid  section  of  honey,  the  difference  being  more  noticeable  when  the 
flow  of  honey  is  rather  moderate  or  uneven.  At  5  is  seen  a  pile  of  the 
raw  foundation  honeycomb. 

Foundation  comb  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  inventions  of  modern 
bee-culture.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  not  well  acquainted 
with  it  I  will  say,  that  it  is  made  of  pure  beeswax,  and  molded  out 
in  very  thin  sheets,  and  then  passed  between  rollers  having  dies  of 
the  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  base  or  the  natural  honeycomb,  thus 
leaving  the  impression  of  the  base  of  the  cell  on  the  sheet  of  wax.  See 
figure  20,  further  on,  and  you  will  see  comb  1  representing  the  raw 
foundation,  and  comb  2  one  day's  work  by  the  bees.  We  will  explain 
this  more  fully  when  we  reach  it. 

No  one  who  pretends  to  keep  bees  should  be  without  this  founda- 
tion comb.  It  has  been  said  that  bees  consume  twenty  pounds  of  honey 
to  produce  one  pound  of  wax,  and  more  conservative  writers  figure 
it  down  to  fifteen  pounds  ;  but  just  think  of  it,  the  price  of  foundation 
is  on  an  average  about  forty-five  cents  per  pound.  Now,  if  one  pound 
of  this  will  save  fifteen  pounds  of  honey,  is  it  not  plain  enough  that 
it  pays  well  to  use  it  ?  Not  only  this,  but  by  its  use  we  can  have 
frames  of  comb  straight  as  a  board,  and  every  inch  of  it  worker  founda- 
tion besides,  and  we  are  not  bothered  with  thousands  of  worthless 
drone  bees  in  the  hive ;  this  it  prevents,  as  you  are  doubtless  aware 
of  the  fact  that  bees  cannot  rear  drones  in  worker  comb,  but  must 
have  the  large  drone  cells  to  rear  them  in. 

SUPER   FOR   HOLDING   THE    SECTIONS. 

The  super  here  shown  for  holding  the  sections  on  the  hive,  similar 
to  what  is  called  the  "T  super,"  I  consider  one  of  the  best.  It  holds 
the  sections  in  place  better  than  any  other  I  have  used.  The  super, 
when  filled  with  honey,  is  more  rigid,  and  less  liable  to  become  loose 
in  handling,  and  the  sections  of  honey  are  more  easily  removed  from 
it.  The  illustration  shows  the  bottom  of  crate,  the  section  rests,  and 
a  few  sections  in  place.  The  section  rests  are  made  of  a  piece  of  wood 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  deep,  with 
a  strip  of  tin  one  inch  wide  tacked  on  the  narrow  edge  of  the  same, 
the  tin  being  •one-fourth  of  an  inch  shorter  at  the  ends.  These  sec- 
tion rests  are  held  in  place  by  a  wire  staple  driven  in  super  as  shown 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


113 


FIG.  11.  Super  for  holding  the  sections. 

in  cut.  The  section  rest  out  of  place  and  leaning  against  the  center 
one  shows  the  extension  of  the  tin  strip  on  each  side  of  the  same.  Tin  is 
also  supplied  at  the  ends  of  super  for  the  same  purpose.  When  sepa- 
rators are  used  they  may  be  dropped  down  between  the  sections,  and 
rest  on  the  section  rests.  A  following  board  is  used,  and  the  sections 
are  keyed  up  tightly  in  place  in  the  usual  manner. 

THE    SECTION-HOLDER    SUPER. 

This  is  a  super  largely  used  at  present,  and  one  that  has  many  good 
features.  The  illustration  shows  the  six  holders,  five  of  them  in  posi- 
tion in  the  crate,  with  the  following  board  at  the  bottom  and  wedges 
under  the  same,  one  holder  out  of  place  and  lying  on  top  of  crate. 
With  this  holder  the  sections  are  less  liable  to  become  soiled,  as  but 
one  side  of  section  is  exposed.  These  holders  filled  with  sections  are 
held  in  the  super  by  wedging  up  with  the  following  board.  This 
wedging  keeps  them  nicely  in  place  when  empty,  but  when  they  be- 
come filled  on  the  hives  there  is  more  or  less  shrinkage  of  the  parts, 
and  when  you  pick  up  the  whole  super  to  move  it  the  outside  shell 
usually  comes,  leaving  the  inside  gearing  on  the  hive.  This  can  be 
removed  by  sections.  This  is  of  course  easily  removed,  and  this  point 
is  one  of  the  good  features  of  the  section  holder.  Bees  when  storing 
surplus  honey  will  usually  fill  the  sections  directly  above  the  brood 
nest  first,  and  thus  the  center  sections  are  completed  long  before  the 
ones  on  the  outside  rows.  With  the  section  holder  those  inside  can 
be  placed  outside,  and  the  empty  sections  are  brought  to  the  center, 


114 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


FIG.  12.    The  section-holder  super. 

by  simply  exchanging  the  position  of  holders.  The  supers  of  either 
of  these  crates  are  the  same,  and  are  the  same  dimensions  as  that  of 
the  hive  proper,  except  they  are  just  one-half  the  depth.  Two  of 
these  empty  supers  make  a  hive,  and  are  frequently  used  as  such  on 
a  scarcity  of  hive.  They  have  rabbets  cut  in  them  for  the  frames  to 
rest  in  when  thus  used. 

SECTION  BOXES,  SHIPPING  CRATES,  ETC. 

In  figure  13,  2  is  a  crate  of  500  sections,  as  shipped  from  the  manu- 
facturers; 3  shows  the  section  box,  with  the  three  saw  cuts  making 
the  corners  after  being  folded ;  ^  is  a  section  partially  folded,  the  dove- 
tailed corners  to  be  brought  up  and  hammered  together  to  complete 
it ;  5  is  a  shipping  case  for  sections  of  honey,  and  on  top  of  same 
are  three  sections  of  honey. 

HIVES   COMPLETE. 

In  figure  14, 1  is  a  hive  with  two  tiers  of  sections,  being  a  complete 
two-story  hive  for  comb  honey.  Each  super  holds  twenty-four  one- 
pound  boxes,  making  forty-eight  pounds  surplus  storage  capacity. 
While  as  a  general  thing  but  two  tiers  of  sections  are  used,  yet  more 
may  be  used,  and  thus  for  the  time  being  several  supers  may  be  stored 
one  above  the  other.  This  must  not  be  considered  ample  storage  capac- 
ity for  the  season  by  any  means,  for  frequently  colonies  will  store  sev- 
eral times  this  capacity  during  the  honey  season.  The  proper  method 
to  pursue  is  to  remove  the  honey  just  as  soon  as  it  is  completed.  As 
previously  stated,  begin  with  one  tier  of  sections,  and  when  the  bees 
have  these  half  full  or  more  add  another  tier  of  boxes  by  raising  the 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


115 


FIG.  13.    Section  boxes,  shipping  crates,  etc. 

first  and  placing  the  empty  ones  next  to  the  bees.  They  will  thus 
fill  the  upper  tier  first  and  have  it  all  completed  and  capped  over  some 
time  before  the  lower  one  is  full ;  but  perhaps  about  this  time  the 
lower  tier  is  full  enough  to  be  raised  up  and  an  empty  one  added 
again.  After  removing  supers  and  taking  out  the  boxes,  if  any  are 
not  completed  return  them  by  using  them  to  make  up  another  super. 
These  uncompleted  sections  are  a  good  bait  to  induce  the  bees  to  take 
hold  again ;  this  they  usually  do  more  readily  when  uncompleted  sec- 


FIG.  14.    Hives  complete. 


116  ONE    YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES. 

tions  are  present.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wait  until  the  outside  sec- 
tions of  the  super  are  sealed  over,  for  the  bees  oftentimes  refuse  to  do 
this  under  any  circumstances,  and  these  can  be  put  in  the  center  of 
the  next  crate  advantageously,  as  explained  above. 

If  you  have  had  some  experience,  you  can  judge  pretty  closely  the 
time  when  the  honey  season  will  close,  and  if  nearing  the  end  you  must 
think  fast  and  work  accordingly,  or  you  will  be  left  with  quite  a 
quantity  of  unfinished  sections  to  carry  over  to  another  year.  Now  is 
the  time  to  condense  and  get  your  sections  nearest  completed  together 
as  much  as  possible,  and  get  them  on  your  best  comb-honey-building 
colonies.  I  say  your  best  "comb-honey  builders."  Can  there  be  a 
difference  in  colonies  like  this?  you  ask.  Yes,  and  all  closely  observ- 
ing apiarists  well  know  this,  and  know  the  colonies  that  they  prefer  to 
put  the  finishing  touches  on  comb  honey.  These  colonies,  like  some 
people,  never  stop  until  their  work  is  completed ;  they  seal  up  their 
honey  as  soon  as  the  combs  are  full  and  the  honey  is  ripe,  while  oth- 
ers are  slow  to  complete  by  sealing  the  combs,  and  especially  when 
nearing  the  end  of  the  honey  season,  they  seem  to  almost  stop  busi- 
ness and  let  everything  go  wide  open.  But  do  not  grieve  over  a  lot 
of  unfinished  sections,  for  if  we  are  out  the  cash  they  would  have 
brought  us  at  the  present  if  finished,  they  are  worth  it  all  with  good 
interest  to  carry  over  for  the  purpose  of  giving  us  a  good  early  start 
with  the  next  spring. 

In  figure  14,  2  is  a  two-story  hive  as  arranged  for  extracting.  This 
hive  is  better  seen  at  11,  in  figure  9.  A  hive  for  extracting  is  simply 
two  brood  chambers.  But  we  want  the  brood  in  the  lower  story,  and 
frames  of  comb  for  the  surplus  honey  in  the  upper  story.  In  figure  9, 
6  shows  the  upper  story  as  arranged  for  the  extractor,  with  eight  frames 
of  comb,  one  of  the  combs  resting  on  top  of  hive.  The  hive  standing 
on  end  at  the  back,  and  marked  9,  simply  shows  the  bottom  of  a 
hive,  arid  the  manner  the  frames  should  hang  thus  evenly  spaced  to 
insure  good  manipulation  of  the  combs. 

THE    EXTRACTOR. 

The  extractor  (fig.  15)  was  invented  about  the  year  1865,  but  is  yet 
little  known  among  the  class  of  small  bee-keepers.  Scarcely  any  one 
who  keeps  but  a  few  colonies  of  bees  thinks  of  getting  an  extractor. 
This  can  also  be  set  down  safely  as  a  mistake  among  the  bee-keepers 
on  a  small  scale.  I  will  say  that  any  one  having  as  many  as  five 
colonies  of  bees  will,  with  the  use  of  an  extractor,  in  one  season  get 
by  its  use  enough  additional  honey  to  pay  for  it. 

It  has  always  been  a  query  to  many  why  extracted  honey  sells  for 
less  than  comb  honey.  This  question  has  already  been  answered  in 
our  discussion  upon  comb  foundation.  By  the  use  of  the  extractor  we 


ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES 


117 


FIG.  15.    The  extractor  with  inside  gearing  raised  up  and  exposed  to  view. 

save  all  the  comb,  and  the  saving  of  a  pound  of  comb  is  equal  to  the 
saving  of  fifteen  pounds  of  honey.  Wax  is  not  gathered  from  flow- 
ers in  any  quantity  that  bees  see  fit  to  carry  it  in,  but  it  is  a  produc- 
tion of  their  own,  produced  by  the  consumption  of  their  food,  honey. 
Wax  is  formed  in  the  bee  on  the  same  principle  that  fat  is  formed  in 
an  animal,  the  difference  being  only  in  the  locality  in  which  it  is 
deposited.  Each  worker  bee  has  six  wax  pockets  located  between 
the  rings  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  three  on  each  side  of  the 
dividing  line  in  center  of  body.  Wax  forms  in  these  little  pockets 
in  disks  resembling  small  fish  scales,  and  can  plainly  be  seen  during 
the  comb-building  season,  protruding  from  these  wax  pockets.  Now 
there  are,  perhaps,  many  who  will  read  this,  and  who  used  to  keep 


118  ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

bees,  and  may  do  so  yet,-  and  have  hived  swarms  in  old  log-gums  and 
square  boxes,  and  the  next  morning  in  looking  in,  by  tipping  up  the 
box,  to  see  if  the  bees  were  there,  discovered  on  the  bottom  board  a 
large  quantity  of  these  scales,  and  wondered  how  they  came  there. 
When  bees  swarm  they  are,  to  their  fullest  extent,  equipped  with 
these  tiny  wax  scales,  stored  up  for  future  use,  and  when  thus  hived 
in  an  empty  box,  and  on  beginning  to  start  their  combs,  they  thus 
from  some  cause  drop  a  large  number  of  these  scales. 

It  has  been  said,  by  good  autuority,  that  we  can  double  the  number 
of  pounds  of  honey  by  extracting  that  we  would  otherwise  get  in  comb 
honey.  If  not  altogether  double  the  amount,  we  can  certainly  get  con- 
siderable more ;  then  why  would  it  not  be  advisable  for  the  small  bee- 
keeper to  thus  increase  the  quantity  of  honey  from  his  few  hives  of 
bees  ?  Producing  extracted  honey  is  less  complicated  and  more  sim- 
ple than  producing  comb  honey. 

EXTRACTING   HONEY. 

The  illustration  (fig.  16),  shows  the  simple  process  of  extracting 
honey  from  the  combs.  The  operator  on  the  right,  with  a  long,  thin- 
bladed  knife,  is  shaving  the  cappings  from  a  frame  of  comb  that  has 
partially  been  sealed  over.  He  hands  the  frames  of  comb  to  the  op- 
erator on  the  left ;  he,  placing  one  in  each  comb  basket,  turns  the 
crank  and  the  reel  inside  revolves  around  a  few  times,  thus  forcing 
the  honey  from  the  outside  of  the  comb  by  centrifugal  force-;  when 
he  reverses  the  comb  baskets,  thus  turning  the  other  side  of  comb 
outwards,  extracting  it  also.  The  combs  come  out  without  being  in 
any  way  injured,  and  are  placed  back  in  the  hive  to  be  refilled  again 
by  the  bees. 


FIG.  16.    Extracting  honey. 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE   BEES.  119 

In  removing  the  frames  of  honey  from  the  hives  of  bees,  we  limit 
ourselves  to  the  upper  story,  exclusively.  We  never  extract  honey 
from  the  brood  chamber,  but  leave  all  that  is  stored  there  for  the  use 
of  the  bees.  There  has  been  considerable  discussion  with  apiarists 
for  some  years  past  in  regard  to  the  proper  time  for  extracting  honey, 
with  special  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  same  in  the  combs. 
Honey,  when  first  gathered  by  the  bees,  is  thin  and  unripe,  and  by 
letting  it  remain  in  the  combs  until  the  bees  seal  it  or  cap  it  over,  it 
becomes  thoroughly  ripe.  If  taken  from  the  comb  soon  after  being 
deposited  and  before  it  is  sealed  over,  it  frequently  is  so  thin  that  it 
will  sour  ;  but  in  most  cases  it  will  ripen  into  a  fair  quality  of  honey 
in  time,  if  kept  away  from  dampness.  By  extracting  before  the  combs 
are  sealed  up,  it  saves  considerable  labor,  not  having  to  uncap  the 
honey  and  the  extracting  being  more  easily  done.  It  is  now  generally 
conceded  that  the  proper  time  to  extract  is  about  the  time  of  the  seal- 
ing of  the  combs.  Some  extract  when  the  bees  begin  sealing,  and 
some  just  after  the  combs  are  well  sealed. 

The  most  extensively  used  packages  for  handling  extracted  honey 
are  square  tin  cans  holding  sixty  pounds  each,  and  are  shown  on  the 
left  in  figure  16.  The  most  popular  small  package,  for  retailing,  are 
Mason's  glass  fruit-jars,  and  also  quart  and  half-gallon  tin  cans.  For 
a  small  local  trade,  the  common  tin  fruit-can,  holding  a  quart,  is  the 
cheapest,  and  is  in  every  way  very  convenient.  Having  a  large  open- 
ing, this  can  will  admit  of  removing  the  honey  in  granulated  form,  and 
such  cans  may  be  filled  and  placed  away  until  cold  weather  and  the 
honey  will  be  formed  in  a  sugary  mass  resembling  lard.  All  ex- 
tracted honey  will  granulate  during  autumn  and  winter,  and  many  pre- 
fer to  use  it  in  this  form,  but  if  not  desired  in  this  form,  it  may  easily 
be  brought  back  to  liquid  by  placing  the  package  containing  it  in  hot 
water.  It  must  not  be  boiled,  but  simply  heated  until  it  returns  to 
liquid. 

The  large  can  shown  011  the  right  of  the  picture  with  the  faucet,  is 
very  convenient  for  filling  small  packages,  and  also  for  retailing  in 
small  amounts.  All  extracted  honey  should  be  thoroughly  strained, 
and  no  strainer  made  of  wire  will  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  a  piece 
of  thin  muslin  or  cheese-cloth  made  in  the  form  of  a  bag,  about  ten 
inches  long,  holding  perhaps  five  pounds  of  honey,  the  weight  of 
which  forces  it  through  the  cloth. 

HIVING   SWARMS. 

It  has  been  the  common  practice,  when  the  bees  swarm  and  settle 
on  trees — and  they  usually  settle  on  fruit-trees — to  cut  off  the  branch 
containing  the  swarm.  This  is  not  only  laborious,  but  it  is  a  great 
damage  to  fruit-trees,  and  many  valuable  trees  from  this  cause  have 


120  ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 

been  permanently  disfigured.  Just  procure  a  small  box — one  hold- 
ing about  a  peck — and  put  several  holes  in  it  to  give  the  swarm  ven- 
tilation, and  add  a  handle  some  eight  to  ten  feet  long  to  it,  so  that 
you  may  be  able  to  reach  up  some  distance  with  it.  Push  it  against 
the  cluster  of  bees  and  dislodge  some  of  them  at  the  same  time,  and 
they  will  readily  go  into  your  box.  If  they  seem  to  be  reluctant 
about  it,  give  the  branch  a  jolt  with  your  box  and  dislodge  most  of 
the  swarm,  and  then  push  the  box  up  close  to  their  clustering  place. 
When  the  bees  get  well  in  the  box,  lower  it  and  shake  the  remaining 
bees  off  the  branch,  and  all  will  go  into  the  box,  when  it  may  be  taken 
to  the  hive  ready  to  receive  them.  In  hiving  them,  first  brush  a 
small  quantity  of  them  down  near  the  entrance  of  hive,  and  these 
will  usually  go  right  in  and  will  give  the  call  to  the  others,  when  the 
whole  army  will  move  in  this  direction.  When  they  get  well  started, 
shake  them  all  from  the  swarming  box,  and  they  will  go  in  the  hive. 
When  bees  are  thus  swarming  be  very  careful  and  handle  them 
kindly.  Do  not  kill  a  bee  if  you  can  well  help  it,  as  they  have  but 
one  queen,  and  their  whole  welfare  depends  upon  her ;  you  might  by 
rough  handling  kill  her. 


FIG.  17.    Hiving  swarms. 

Bees  cut  up  many  very  interesting  pranks  at  swarming  time. 
Swarms  will  come  out  frequently,  and  then  return  again  to  the  parent 
hive.  They  may  do  this  every  day  for  a  whole  week  perhaps,  but  not 
usually  so  often.  When  a  swarm  thus  returns,  the  queen  has  not  ac- 
companied it,  and  I  have  had  queens  that  absolutely  refused  to  thus 
come  with  the  swarm,  and  apparently  nothing  whatever  to  prevent 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE   BEES.  121 

her.  Queens,  on  account  of  bad  wings,  cannot  fly  with  the  swarm, 
and  this  occurs  very  often.  They  come  out  and  crawl  off  on  the 
ground,  and  sometimes  are  lost  entirely.  In  this  case,  of  course,  the 
swarm  returns  also.  When  the  queen  comes  out  with  the  swarm  and 
cannot  fly,  as  in  this  case,  the  bees  very  frequently  find  her,  as  the  odor 
of  queens  is  very  attractive  to  the  bees,  and  if  you  are  very  careful  to 
look  all  around  in  the  vicinity  where  the  swarm  has  been  you  may  see 
a  little  handful  of  bees  gathered  up  in  a  ball ;  then  you  can  almost  set 
it  down  as  a  certainty  that  the  queen  is  inside  the  ball. 

In  case  of  swarms  returning,  they  may  be  hived  readily  by  removing 
the  parent  hive  after  the  swarm  has  come  out  and  putting  an  empty 
hive  in  its  place,  and  the  bees  will  walk  right  into  the  new  one.  But 
they  must  have  a  queen,  and  you  can  hunt  out  their  own  queen  and 
put  her  in  with  them,  providing  she  remained  in  the  parent  hive.  The 
parent  hive  is  then  in  the  same  condition  as  if  the  swarm  came  off 
with  the  queen,  and  it  can  be  placed  back  at  its  old  stand  and  the 
new  one  removed  elsewhere. 

In  the  above  we  speak  of  old  queens  only,  and  of  first  swarms,  as 
the  old  queens  always  come  with  the  first  swarms ;  but  second  swarms 
containing  young  virgin  queens  are  also  guilty  of  the  same  tricks,  and 
it  is  more  like  "tricks"  with  them,  for  they  are  active  on  the  wing. 
More  than  one  virgin  queen  may  come  with  second  swarms,  as  they 
emerge  from  the  cells  several  in  number  at  the  time  of  the  swarm's 
issuing ;  and  right  here  is  a  nice  little  thing  to  make  a  note  of.  The 
young  queens  are  kept  imprisoned  in  their  cells  by  the  bees,  and  but 
one  of  them  allowed  at  liberty  in  the  hive,  to  prevent  their  killing 
each  other ;  they  thus  keep  them  in  their  cells  until  the  swarm  is  ready 
to  come  off,  at  which  time  they  seem  to  allow  them  their  liberty,  or  at 
least  let  a  portion  of  them  come  out,  and  in  this  manner  several  of 
them  may  come  out  with  the  swarm,  and  thus  come  out,  too,  not  being 
out  of  their  cell  perhaps  five  minutes.  Or,  in  other  words,  we  may  say 
they  swarmed  with  the  bees,  not  being  over  five  minutes  old.  But  in 
this  case  the  queens  were  kept  imprisoned  maybe  twelve  or  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  even  longer,  after  they  matured  and  were  ready  to  come 
out.  In  all  cases  of  second  or  after  swarms  thus  having  several 
queens  issue  from  the  hive  with  them,  they  settle  down  to  business 
with  but  one  queen,  and  the  others  will  be  found  dead  at  the  entrance 
of  the  hive  a  few  hours  later. 

PUTTING    HIVES   TOGETHER. 

The  illustration  ( 18 )  for  putting  hives  together,  and  getting  them 
perfectly  square  and  exactly  to  the  place  before  nailing  them,  explains 
itself.  It  is  made  of  two-by-four  stuff,  well  braced  and  spiked,  and  is 
readily  made  with  ordinary  tools,  and  can  be  made  by  any  one.  The 


122 


ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 


FIG.  18.   Putting  hives  together. 

hive  is  first  put  in  place,  and  wedged  up  tightly  to  its  proper  shape, 
and  when  thus  nailed  it  will  take  a  hard  knock  to  change  it.  Any 
style  of  hive,  whether  dovetailed  or  any  other  style  of  corner  used, 
may  thus  be  put  up  squarely  and  in  proper  shape. 

QUEEN-CELLS  AND  QUEEN  REARING. 

Figure  19  is  an  ordinary  frame  of  comb,  and  on  it  are  seen  queen- 
cells  from  the  time  they  are  commenced  until  they  are  completed. 
At  1  is  a  cell  about  four  or  five  days  old,  2  is  six  or  seven  days  old, 
and  at  .3  we  have  one  completed  at  eight  or  nine  days  old ;  and  it  thus 
remains  until  the  queen  hatches,  at  sixteen  days.  Two  others  still 
younger  may  be  seen  on  the  comb.  This  comb  was  used  in  what  we 
call  artificial  queen  rearing;  that  is,  these  cells  were  built  here  by 
the  bees  out  of  season,  and  not  during  swarming  time,  nor  under  the 
swarming  impulse.  They  were  built  here  as  an  absolute  necessity  by 
a  queenless  colony  to  produce  a  queen,  as  any  colony  will  do  at  any 
season  of  the  year  if  they  have  brood  in  the  combs  young  enough  to 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES.  123 

produce  a  queen.  Natural  cells,  as  we  call  them,  are  produced  only 
during  the  swarming  season,  and  while  the  bees  have  the  swarming 
fever.  There  is  no  difference  in  the  cells,  nor  in  the  queens  they  pro- 
duce, but  usually  there  is  a  difference  in  the  locality  on  the  combs 
which  these  queen-cells  occupy.  In  building  queen-cells  in  natural 
swarming,  the  bees,  having  the  entire  work  under  their  own  manage- 
ment, select  the  edges  at  the  ends  and  bottom  of  the  combs,  usually, 
to  construct  these  cells,  and  also  in  uneven  and  broken  places  in  the 
combs,  and  these  cells  are  scarcely  ever  found  on  a  smooth  surface 
near  the  center  of  the  combs,  as  in  the  illustration  ( fig.  19 ).  I  men- 
tion this  fact,  so  that,  if  you  are  hunting  the  combs  for  queen-cells  in 
swarming  time,  you  will  not  be  misled  by  the  location  of  same. 


FIG.  19.    Queen-cells  and  queen  rearing. 

There  is  no  difference  between  an  egg  deposited  by  the  queen  to 
produce  a  worker  bee  and  an  egg  deposited  by  her  to  produce  a  queen ; 
they  are  one  and  the  same.  They  are  also  the  same  after  the  egg 
hatches  into  larva  ;  but  at  this  point  the  change  begins  to  occur ;  and 
if  you  give  a  queenless  colony  that  has  no  young  brood  of  its  own  a 
frame  of  comb  containing  worker-eggs  or  larvae  as  usually  found  in  a 
hive,  they  will  at  once  begin  to  construct  queen-cells  around  a  few  of 
these  eggs,  just  as  you  see  in  figure  19,  and  in  course  of  time  pro- 
duce as  many  young  queens.  This  change  is  brought  about  by  the 
bees  changing  the  shape  of  the  cell,  and  also  administering  a  different 
kind  of  food  and  especial  care  to  the  Iarva3.  In  extreme  cases  bees 
will  take  larvae  three  or  four  days  old  and  change  them  to  queens,  but 
such  queens  are  not  considered  the  best. 

Now,  on  the  above  plan,  you  have  our  method  of  artificial  queen 
rearing.  Queens  may  thus  be  produced  any  time  during  the  suLimer, 
spring  and  autumn  included,  or  while  warm  weather  continues.  First 


124  ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

take  a  colony  that  does  not  have  a  queen,  or  you  may  remove  the 
queen  from  any  colony  that  has  the  proper  brood  in  the  combs,  and 
this  colony  will  proceed  at  once  to  thus  build  cells.  When  these  cells 
are  sealed  up,  and  at  any  time  before  the  first  queen  hatches  out,  they 
must  be  cut  out  of  the  comb  and  kept  entirely  separate,  for  immedi- 
ately after  the  first  young  queen  is  out,  she  will  hunt  up  these  cells, 
and  tear  them  open,  sting  the  young  queens  yet  in  the  cell,  and  thus 
destroy  them.  The  proper  time  to  separate  the  cells  is  about  two 
days  after  they  are  sealed  over,  which  occurs  on  the  eighth  or  ninth 
day,  which  would  make  the  cells  ten  or  eleven  days  old.  They  will 
hatch  out  in  sixteen  days,  providing  the  brood  was  not  over  three 
days  old  from  the  time  the  eggs  were  deposited,  but  if  a  day  older, 
they  will  hatch  that  much  sooner. 

To  care  for  these  queen-cells  we  must  form  nucleus  colonies ;  that 
is,  we  take  one  or  two  frames  of  bees  and  brood,  and  make  a  small  col- 
ony, containing  no  queen  of  course,  and  engraft  one  of  these  cells  in 
the  comb,  and  thus  accommodate  each  queen-cell  with  one  of  these 
nuclei.  Full  colonies  must  be  drawn  upon  to  form  these  nuclei, 
and  one  colony  will  make  several  of  them.  These  cells  hatch  and 
the  young  queens  will  become  fertile  and  begin  laying  eggs  in  ten 
or  twelve  days,  when  they  may  be  removed  and  introduced  into  full 
colonies,  or  these  nuclei  containing  them  may  be  built  up  into  full 
colonies.  During  swarming  time  is  the  best  time  to  raise  q4eens,  as 
many  hives  now  have  a  number  of  natural  queen-cells  in  th[em,  and 
we  can  utilize  them  and  produce  a  large  number  thus.  I  have  a  pref- 
erence for  natural  cells,  but  am  not  able  to  prove  them  any  better  than 
the  others.  One  drawback  to  raising  queens  out  of  season  is  the  sup- 
ply of  drones.  We  cannot  raise  queens  without  drones ;  that  is,  the 
queens  will  not  become  fertile,  and  of  course  are  worthless ;  but  usually 
there  are  drones  enough  retained  to  answer  the  purpose.  We  can  pro- 
duce drones  at  any  time  by  feeding,  but  this  is  rather  expensive ;  but 
one  thing  we  can  do,  and  that  is  retain  them,  by  keeping  colonies  that 
have  a  large  number  of  them  queenless,  for  a  queenless  colony  will 
not  kill  their  drones. 

FRAMES   OF   COMB   FOUNDATION. 

Figure  20  shows  something  that  I  think  is  of  considerable  value 
and  importance  to  the  bee-keeper.  Here  are  two  frames  of  comb 
foundation.  Frame  No.  1  shows  a  sheet  of  raw  foundation  just  fas- 
tened into  the  frame,  and  the  bees  have  not  done  any  work  on  it. 
No.  2  shows  a  frame  of  foundation  that  the  bees  have  worked  on  just 
ten  hours.  It  was  placed  in  a  strong  colony  in  the  morning,  and 
taken  out  in  the  evening.  Examine  it  closely,  and  see  how  perfectly 
these  cells  have  been  drawn  out.  In  these  ten  hours  the  cells  were 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES.  125 

lengthened  out  just  one-eighth  of  an  inch  over  the  entire  surface  of 
comb  and  on  both  sides,  thus  making  it  a  little  over  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  thick.  I  am  unable  to  understand  why  any  bee-keeper  can  allow 
his  bees  to  build  their  own  comb,  or  use  mere  narrow  strips  of  foun- 
dation as  starters  in  the  frames,  and  thus  have  crooked,  unsightly 
combs,  and  oversupply  of  drone  comb,  which  is  always  followed  by 
an  oversupply  of  drone  bees. 


FIG.  20.    Frames  of  comb  foundation. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  frames  are  wired.  Three  strands  of 
fine  wire  are  drawn  through  the  frame,  by  piercing  the  end  pieces  in 
the  center  and  passing  the  wire  through  and  fastening  the  same  at 
each  end  with  a  small  tack.  The  wire  must  not  be  drawn  up  tight, 
so  as  to  sound  like  a  violin  string  when  you  touch  it.  It  must  be 
slack,  scarcely  drawn  up  straight,  for  if  tight  the  comb  will  buckle,  as 
it  stretches  as  the  bees  work  it  out ;  so  that  the  wire  must  be  slack 
enough  to  stretch  with  the  comb  when  the  bees  are  working  it.  The 
top  of  the  foundation  is  fastened  to  top  bar  of  frame  by  pressure,  the 
wax  adhering  to  the  wood  when  pressed  against  it.  The  sheet  of 
foundation  should  not  reach  the  bottom  by  half  an  inch,  as  it  will 
stretch  nearly  this  much  in  working  it.  In  No.  2  a  mere  trace  of  the 
lower  wire  may  be  seen.  The  wire  is  imbedded  in  the  comb  by  a  wire 
imbedder  made  for  the  purpose. 

FEEDING   BEES. 

Various  kinds  of  feeders  are  used  for  feeding  bees  sugar  syrup. 
I  have  tried  almost  everything  that  I  have  seen  recommended,  and 
the  above  simple  arrangement  suits  me  better  than  any  other.  It  is  a 


126  ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 

two-inch  soft  white-pine  plank  filled  with  holes  not  quite  through,  thus 
forming  a  trough,  and  the  partitions  between  the  holes  make  a  good 
foothold  for  the  bees,  so  that  none  are  lost  by  drowning.  It  may  be 
made  any  size,  but  I  prefer  it  just  large  enough  to  cover  the  entire  top  of 
hive  neatly,  and  a  few  holes  in  the  center  put  clear  through  for  the  bees 
to  pass  up  and  down.  It  is  placed  in  an  upper  empty  story,  and  with 
the  lid  on  all  is  secure.  In  the  illustration  the  side  of  the  upper 
chamber  is  removed  to  show  the  feeder  in  place.  This  may  be  easily 
improved  for  a  cool-weather  feeder,  by  nailing  a  strip  around  the  up- 
per out  edges,  half  an  inch  high,  and  dropping  a  cover  down  on  this, 
which  will  give  the  bees  good  working  room  under  it :  and  then  fill 
the  upper  story  with  a  chaff  cushion  or  old  clothes,  and  thus  retain 
the  natural  warmth  of  the  bees. 


FIG.  21.    Feeding  bees. 
HOUSE    APIARIES. 

The  illustration  (fig.  22)  shows  the  location  of  hives  of  bees  in  a 
building.  I  should,  perhaps,  not  say  "house  apiary,"  as  house  apia- 
ries are  generally  known  as  very  fine,  expensive  constructions,  very 
peculiarly  erected,  and  the  more  peculiar  the  better.  But  leaving 
out  the  peculiarity,  and  getting  down  to  practical  business,  I  use 
"any  old  house,"  and  after  having  experience  in  handling  bees  in  a 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES.  127 

building,  I  could  not  be  induced  to  again  adopt  outdoor  apiaries. 
Figure  22  shows  a  section  or  corner  of  a  room  containing  hives ;  2  is 
a  bottom  board  from  which  a  hive  has  been  removed.  The  hives  sit 
two  inches  from  the  wall,  and  the  bottom  is  arranged  after  the  fashion 
of  the  chaff  hive,  and  may  be  packed  away  in  chaff  during  winter  as 
a  still  better  protection.  3,  shows  sheets  of  legal-cap  paper  tacked  to 
the  wall,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  a  register  of  each  colony.  This 
is  very  important,  and  is  a  great  help  in  the  manipulation  of  colonies, 
to  know  exactly  their  condition  by  simply  glancing  at  the  register. 
This  will  frequently  save  a  half  hour's  work  spent  in  opening  and  ex- 
amining them,  and  often  furnish  information  that  could  not  be  found 
by  an  examination,  such  as  time  of  swarming,  number  of  pounds 
honey  taken,  age  of  queen,  when  young  queens  will  hatch,  quality  of 
queen,  tested  or  untested  queen,  queen  purchased  of  whom,  imported 
queen,  selected  breeders,  etc.,  etc.  4,  shows  nucleus  hives  containing 
one  or  two  combs,  and  some  bees  for  rearing  queens,  nailed  up  against 
the  wall,  and  a  small  hole  put  through  the  siding  for  the  bees  to  pass 
out  and.  in.  These  I  have  previously  explained  under  queen  rearing. 
They  may  be  used  as  well  outdoors,  in  ordinary  hives ;  and  when  one 
or  two  frames  are  thus  used  in  a  hive,  an  adjusting  board  to  adjust 
the  required  space  in  the  hive  can  be  used. 

I  will  name  some  of  the  advantages  as  I  see  them  in  keeping  bees 


FIG.  22.  House  apiaries. 


128  ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

in  a  house.  The  first  and  most  important  thing  is,  that  you  are  al- 
most entirely  safe  from  bee  stings.  Bees  will  scarcely  attempt  to 
sting  you  in  a  building,  and  you  will  certainly  get  ten  chances  of  be- 
ing stung  outdoors  to  one  in  a  building,  at  the  least  estimate.  You 
can  handle  bees  in  any  kind  of  weather  in  the  house,  and  as  you  are 
entirely  out  of  the  wind  you  can  do  your  work  much  better.  You  are 
never  bothered  with  robber  bees  poking  in  the  hives  when  you  have 
them  open,  and  every  apiarist  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  manipulate 
bees  out  of  the  honey  season  011  account  of  robber  bees.  And  for  the 
same  reason  you  can  remove  honey  from  the  hives,  change  the  section 
boxes  of  honey  about,  and  handle  the  honey  by  putting  it  up  in  pack- 
ages, and  extract  out  of  season ;  all  this  work  is  performed,  and  no 
robber  bees  to  bother  you.  Occasionally  we  will  have  some  bees  in- 
side when  handling  them ;  but  place  bee  escapes  on  the  windows,  or 
in  absence  of  this  a  few  holes  or  cracks  in  the  wall,  or  even  a  door 
open  a  minute,  will  cause  them  all  to  fly  out.  If  the  house  is  so  that 
you  can  darken  it  to  some  extent  by  closing  the  doors  and  windows, 
the  bees  that  are  inside  will  in  an  instant  hunt  a  hole  to  get  out.  You 
can  thus  clear  the  house  of  bees  at  once,  and  it  would  surprise  you 
how  quickly  they  will  go.  Wire  screen  should  of  course  be  on  win- 
dows, doors,  and  all  openings.  By  turning  a  key  in  the  door  your 
whole  apiary  and  all  implements  are  secure  from  thieves,  and  espe- 
cially is  this  of  great  advantage  when  apiaries  are  kept  away  from 
home. 

Another  inexpensive  way  of  keeping  bees,  and  also  a  way  in  which 
to  obtain  nearly  all  the  advantages  of  the  house  apiary,  is  to  construct 
a  small  building  ten  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  six  feet  high.  This 
will  accommodate  eleven  colonies  of  bees — five  on  each  side  and  one 
at  the  end.  On  each  side,  where  the  hives  sit,  should  be  a  floor  of 
boards,  and  the  center  where  you  stand  to  operate  should  be  ground 
floor.  I  have  used  two  tiers  of  hives  in  such  a  building,  thus  having 
twenty-two  colonies  in  it,  but  it  is  not  convenient  for  handling  the 
upper  tier,  and  I  would  not  recommend  it.  Houses  like  this  will  not 
cost  any  more  than  chaff  hives  enough  for  the  eleven  colonies,  and  is 
superior  for  winter  use,  as  the  entire  building  may  be  filled  with 
chaff,  or  used  in  any  quantity  desired.  House  apiaries,  as  usually 
constructed,  are  very  long  buildings,  and  the  result  is,  that  the  bees 
become  lost  as  to  their  proper  place  of  entering ;  the  hives  at  the  ends 
of  building  get  the  most  of  the  stray  bees  thus,  and  these  hives  be- 
come very  strong,  while  the  hives  in  the  center  of  building  become 
weakened.  This  has  always  been  a  strong  argument  against  house 
apiaries ;  but  on  the  plan  above  given,  not  having  more  than  a  dozen 
hives  facing  one  direction  on  the  same  line,  obviates  this  difficulty 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE   BEES.  129 

entirely,  in  my  experience.  Painting  the  entrances  of  the  hives  with 
different  colors  has  been  said  to  remedy  this  trouble  to  some  extent, 
as  the  bees  are  attracted  by  the  different  colors. 

OPENING   HIVES   AND   HANDLING   THE   BEES. 

Now,  my  friends,  right  here  is  where  we  must  exercise  a  little  nerve. 
The  apiarist  who  is  accustomed  to  doing  this  work  does  not  need  any 
toning  up  of  his  nerves,  and  neither  will  you  if  you  have  performed 
the  job  a  few  times.  But  one  not  accustomed  to  the  work,  and  who 
undertakes  it  in  an  ordinary  way,  would  be  likely  to  get  into  serious 
trouble,  and  if  you  found  out  just  the  proper  way  of  doing  it  by  actual 
practice  alone,  it  would  be  some  time  before  you  would  make  a  com- 
plete success  of  it.  While  bees  are  frequently  handled  without 
smoke,  yet  the  oldest  apiarist  has  his  smoker  always  at  hand,  and  I 
would  advise  the  beginner  not  to  begin  without  first  procuring  a  good 
bee  smoker.  If  you  are  armed  with  a  good  smoker,  and  it  is  properly 
equipped  for  business,  you  can  everlastingly  whip  any  colony  of  bees 
into  subjection  on  short  order. 

A  great  many  people  who  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  post  them- 
selves on  the  subject  of  bees  have  very  peculiar  ideas  about  them. 
They  will  tell  you  that  Mr.  Soandso  can  handle  bees  and  do  anything 
he  wishes  with  them,  and  the  bees  never  sting  him,  but  Mr.  Some- 
body cannot  go  in  sight  of  them  without  being  stung,  as  bees  have 
a  special  dislike  for  him,  etc.  Now,  such  ideas  are  handed  down 
from  one  generation  to  another,  and  become  instilled  in  the  minds  of 
people  as  actual  facts,  when  the  fact  is,  it  is  all  a  mistake.  It  is  true 
that  some  people  will  receive  more  stings  from  bees  than  others,  but 
the  reason  of  this  is  altogether  in  the  manner  the  person  conducts 
himself  when  about  them  or  working  with  them ;  so  that  if  Mr.  Some- 
body adopts  Mr.  Soandso's  method  of  handling  them  he  will  receive 
no  more  stings  than  the  latter.  Bees  do  not  know  one  person  from 
another.  I  do  not  believe  they  know  the  apiarist  that  works  with 
them  every  day  for  years  from  any  one  else,  except  that  they  get  ac- 
customed to  his  manner  of  handling,  and  if  he  is  not  an  expert  in  this 
line  a  stranger  that  is  an  expert  can  take  his  bees  and  handle  them  at 
once  with  less  stings  than  the  owner.  When  a  boy  I  was  taught  that 
only  persons  that  were  endowed  with  supernatural  power  could  handle 
bees.  Having  inclinations  in  that  direction  myself,  I  was  told  by  one 
of  these  "bee  tamers"  that  I  might  be  slightly  endowed  with  this 
miraculous  power,  and  I  really  thought,  or  at  least  hoped,  I  was.  But 
after  bringing  my  influence  to  bear  rather  heavily  on  a  colony  of  bees 
soon  after,  I  was  nearly  stung  to  death;  hence  this  theory  exploded 
with  me  early  in  life. 

If  we  wish  to  handle  bees  successfully  and  without  stings  we  must 


130  ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES. 


FIG.  23.    Opening  hives  and  handling  bees. 

handle  them  carefully.  First,  open  the  hive,  without  jarring  it,  if 
possible.  If  the  lid  is  glued  fast  —  and  it  never  will  be  if  you  keep  a 
good,  sound  cloth  under  the  lid  and  over  all  of  the  frames  and  top  of 
the  hive — but  if  it  is,  pry  it  up  as  easily  as  .possible.  After  removing 
the  lid,  take  one  corner  of  quilt  and  draw  it  up ;  and,  by  the  way,  al- 
ways take  it  up  first  at  the  side  of  hive  farthest  from  you  and  draw  it 
toward  you,  as  seen  in  the  illustration.  Now,  it  is  supposed  you  have 
your  smoker  in  readiness,  providing  you  need  it,  and  if  the  bees  come 
running  up  and  boiling  out  between  the  frames  on  top,  take  your 
smoker  and  give  them  a  few  light  puffs  of  smoke  and  send  them  back 
down  again.  If  they  seem  to  stay  down  pretty  well  you  may  go  on 
with  your  work,  but  if  they  come  back  up  as  before,  drive  them  down 
again  with  the  smoke  with  a  little  more  positiveness.  Usually,  by 
this  time,  you  are  master  of  the  situation,  and  you  may  remove  the 
quilt  entirely  and  take  out  the  frames,  or  any  frame  you  desire.  The 
frames  are  usually  fastened  with  bee-glue,  and  when  the  weather  is  a 
little  cool  you  will  need  something  to  pry  the  frames  loose  and,  for 
this  purpose,  a  screw-driver  will  answer  nicely.  When  taking  out 
the  first  frame,  spread  the  frames  on  both  sides  of  the  one  you  wish 
to  take  out  so  that  the  frame  will  lift  up  clear,  and  not  rub  or  be 
squeezed  with  the  frames  beside  it,  thus  killing  bees  on  removing  it. 
Draw  the  frame  up  slowly  and  replace  it  in  the  same  manner. 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


REVERSING    THE   COMB. 


131 


This  illustration  simply  shows  how  you  may  turn  the  comb  over 
without  releasing  your  hold,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  reverse 
side.  Please  notice  the  smoker  in  this  figure  ;  it  is  in  proper  position 
to  hold  fire.  Fuel  for  smokers  may  consist  of  cotton  rags.  Old,  thin, 
worn  calico  or  muslin  is  good,  but  dry,  rotten,  spongy  wood  is  still 
better.  The  fire-box  of  the  smoker  should  be  full  of  fuel  before  light- 
ing it,  and  if  the  fire  is  well  started,  and  the  smoker  set  down  in  posi- 
tion as  seen  in  the  cut,  it  will  hold  fire  several  hours  and  be  ready  at 
any  minute  to  furnish  smoke.  The  smoker  here  illustrated  is  known 
as  the  "  Clark's  Cold  Blast."  It  is  one  of  the  cheapest,  costing  only 
about  half  as  much  as  many  others,  and  I  consider  it  one  of  the  best. 


FIG.  24.    Reversing  the  comb. 


CLOSE  OF  THE  HONEY  SEASON. 

There  will  be  found  some  important  work  to  do  immediately  after 
the  close  of  the  principal  honey  season.  The  first  thing  on  the  pro- 
gram with  bees,  after  the  honey  harvest,  is  to  pry  around  to  see  if  they 
can  find  a  colony  to  rob.  Just  at  this  time  they  are  not  likely  to. 
be  disappointed,  for  frequently  there  is  such.  Colonies  that  are  in 
danger  are  those  that  have  no  queens,  or  very  weak  colonies ;  perhaps 
some  of  these  nuclei  in  which  we  have  been  raising  queens.  Every- 
thing along  this  line  must  now  be  looked  up,  for  we  do  not  want  them 


132 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE    BEES. 


to  get  a  start  of  this  kind,  as  they  will  everlastingly  keep  it  up  if  they 
get  a  taste.  To  prevent  it,  we  must  furnish  all  colonies  with  good 
fertile  queens,  and  make  examination  of  every  one  to  ascertain  if  they 
have  laying  queens.  When  bees  become  queenless  they  will  not  de- 
fend their  stores,  and  robber  bees  soon  find  them  out.  We  must  not 
leave  honey  lying  round  carelessly  or  have  it  stored  where  the  bees 
can  reach  it.  All  cracks  and  crevices  about  the  hives  except  the  en- 
trance proper  must  be  closed,  and  very  weak  colonies  may  have  the 
entrances  to  their  hives  contracted,  so  they  can  better  defend  them. 
Queens  now  will  cease  laying  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  hives  that 
contain  spring  hatch  of  queens  will  be  about  the  only  ones  that  will 
continue  to  lay  eggs  and  keep  up  their  colonies  in  fairly  good 
strength.  Queens  over  two  years  old  had  better  be  removed,  and  also 
all  others  that  failed  to  do  good  service  during  the  honey  season,  and 
replaced  with  young,  fertile  queens  of  the  present  year's  raising,  if  we 
can  produce  or  prjcure  them.  We  should  be  able  to  rear  our  own 
queens,  so  we  can  thus  keep  up  our  stock  in  the  best  of  order  without 
going  to  the  expense  of  buying  them.  But  we  can  if  we  wish  pur- 
chase them  in  any  quantity,  as  there  are  plenty  of  apiarists  who  make 
a  business  of  rearing  them  for  sale.  At  this  particular  season  of  the 
year  they  are  usually  sold  at  one  dollar  each,  or  ten  dollars  per  dozen, 
for  good,  tested  Italian  queens. 


FIG.  25.    Outside  view  of  house  containing  bees,  showing 
the  entrance  to  the  hives. 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE   BEES.  133 

Colonies  that  do  not  have  stores  enough  to  carry  them  through  the 
winter,  and  honey  not  at  hand  to  give  them,  should  be  fed  during  the 
month  of  September.  They  should  be  thus  fed  early,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  able  to  thoroughly  seal  up  the  stores  given  them  while 
the  weather  is  yet  warm.  Granulated  sugar  is  the  proper  food  for 
them,  and  in  no  case  should  they  be  fed  cheap  brown  sugar  on  which 
to  winter.  The  sugar  should  be  well  melted  by  adding  water  and 
allowing  it  to  reach  the  boiling-point.  The  syrup  may  be  made  of 
about  the  consistency  of  thin  molasses,  and  given  them  daily  until 
twenty-five  or  thirty  pounds  are  stored  in  the  hive.  The  best  time  of 
day  to  feed  bees  is  late  in  the  evening ;  just  as  late  as  we  can  see  to 
do  the  work.  Feeding  during  the  day  is  an  incentive  to  robbing,  and 
at  night  there  is  no  danger,  and  by  morning  the  work  is  all  done  and 
the  bees  all  quiet. 

CELLAR  WINTERING. 

Many  winter  their  bees  in  a  cellar.  But  this  is  generally  practiced 
by  specialists,  and  it  usually  takes  the  expert  to  make  a  success  of  it. 
A  cellar  for  bees  should  be  for  them  exclusively,  and  it  would  be  very 
risky  to  undertake  to  winter  bees  in  a  cellar  used  for  all  purposes.  A 
cellar  may  be  so  arranged  by  partitioning  off  a  part  of  it  for  the  bees 


FIG.  26.  Cellar  wintering. 

exclusively,  but  it  must  be  well  separated  from  the  other  part.  The 
cellar  where  bees  are  kept  must  be  kept  in  utter  darkness  at  all  times, 
except  occasionally  when  we  wish  to  make  examination  of  the  bees  ; 
then  we  may  use  lamplight. 

The  illustration,  figure  26,  shows  the  manner  of  placing  the  hives 
in  a  cellar.     The  foundation  is  made  of  two-by-four  scantling,  placed 


134  ONE  YEAR  AMONG  THE  BEES. 

fourteen  inches  apart,  and  the  hives  are  set  on  these,  leaving  a  space 
between  them  of  about  eight  inches.  The  next  tier  of  hives  is  placed 
directly  over  this  space,  and  so  on  as  high  as  wished.  The  bottom 
boards  are  not  used  on  the  hives,  but  left  open  thus  for  ventilation. 
In  this  manner  the  dead  bees  and  all  accumulations  drop  down  and 
entirely  out  of  the  hive  on  the  lid  of  the  one  below  it,  where  it  may 
be  brushed  off  and  thus  kept  clean.  The  hives  thus  arranged  prevent 
the  bees  from  getting  together,  as  they  will  not  venture  from  their 
combs  far  enough  to  thus  get  together.  The  proper  temperature  to 
keep  a  cellar  for  bees  is  about  forty-five  degrees.  Bees  should  be 
placed  in  the  cellar  just  on  the  beginning  of  severe  winter,  and  put  in 
place  by  very  careful  handling. 


FIG.  27.    Chaff  hives  and  outdoor  wintering. 
CHAFF   HIVES   AND   OUTDOOR   WINTERING. 

It  will  be  observed  throughout  my  articles  here  that  I  use  consid- 
erable economy  and  advocate  cheapness  in  many  things,  and  I  will 
frankly  admit  that  I  am  not  in  the  bee  business  for  my  health  but  for 
the  actual  profits  that  are  in  it.  I  have  frequently,  in  my  writings,  ad- 
vocated common  dry-goods  boxes  for  chaff  hives.  Figure  27  Is  one 
of  them.  I  knocked  the  side  out  of  it  so  you  can  see  how  to  put  your 
hive  of  bees  in  one  of  them.  The  hive  is  also  tipped  up  a  little  side- 
wise  to  show  you  how  the  bottom  board  is  fixed.  It  certainly  needs 
no  other  explanation,  only  that  the  side  is  put  back  and  the  entire 
box,  all  around  the  hive,  under  and  above,  is  filled  with  chaff  and  a 
good,  water-tight  cover  put  on  the  same.  When  completed  it  looks 
just  like  figure  28. 


ONE   YEAR   AMONG   THE   BEES. 


135 


FIG.  28.    Chaff  hive,  complete. 
CHAFF    HIVE,    COMPLETE. 

If  you  would  tell  a  farmer  that  he  must  send  off  and  buy  chaff 
hives  for  all  his  bees,  at  a  cost  of  perhaps  two  or  three  dollars  each, 
I  want  to  ask  you  how  many  of  them  will  do  it.  But  if  you  tell  him 
to  get  dry-goods  boxes  at  the  store,  and  show  him  how  cheaply  and 
easily  he  can  convert  them  into  chaff  hives,  he  will  be  pretty  sure  to 
get  them,  and  his  bees  will  be  fixed  up  in  first-class  order,  for  there  is 
no  chaff  hive  made  that  will  beat  it  for  actual  service.  This  is  not 
only  a  winter  hive,  but  a  summer  hive  as  well,  and  intended  for  an 
all-year-round  hive.  It  is  not  only  useful,  but  ornamental. 

COLONY  OF  BEES  READY  FOR  SHIPMENT. 

Full  colonies  of  bees  may  be  safely  shipped  at  any  time  from  early 
spring  until  late  autumn,  but  never  in  winter.  Figure  29  represents 


136 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG   THE    BEES. 


FIG.  29.    Colony  of  bees  ready  for  shipment. 

a  colony  put  up  to  ship  any  distance  by  express  during  the  hottest 
days  in  summer.  The  half  story  added  on  top,  covered  with  wire 
gauze,  gives  an  empty  chamber  for  the  bees  above  the  frames  of  comb, 
and  the  entrance  to  hive  is  also  covered  with  wire  cloth,  so  that  they 
have  all  ventilation  required.  They  may  be  thus  safely  confined 
several  days,  and  shipped  across  the  continent  in  perfect  safety. 

INTRODUCING   QUEENS. 

A  colony  of  the  worst  type  of  the  old  black  bees  may  be  changed 
to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  by  simply  removing  the  black  queen, 
and  introducing  an  Italian  queen  in  her  place.  If  a  queen  is  thus  in- 
troduced in  early  spring,  there  will  scarcely  be  a  trace  left  of  the  old 
stock  in  midsummer.  There  is  always  some  risk  of  losing  the  queen 
in  introduction  by  the  bees  being  dissatisfied  with  her  and  killing  her. 
In  almost  all  cases  when  the  new  queen  is  at  once  liberated  anu  ng 
them  immediately  after  the  removal  of  the  old  one  they  will  destroy 
her.  It  takes  a  prolonged  method  to  induce  them  to  accept  her  prop- 
erly. It  is  necessary  first  to  remove  the  queen,  and  be  absolutely  cer- 
tain that  the  colony  is  queenless.  Then  with  the  new  queen  placed 
in  a  wire-screen  cage,  and  placed  in  the  hive  near  the  brood  nest, 
it  is  allowed  to  remain  some  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  hours,  after  which 
time  she  may  be  released  among  the  bees.  In  some  instances  the  bees 
will  not  yet  accept  her,  but  will  begin  treating  her  very  roughly  and 
will  attempt  to  sting  her ;  but  they  do  not  sting  her  thus,  but  form  in 
in  a  compact  ball  around  her,  and  thus  remain  until  they  seemingly 
squeeze  the  life  out  of  her.  When  they  thus  begin  to  ball  around 


ONE    YEAR   AMONG    THE   BEES.  137 

her,  the  bees  may  be  smoked  away  from  her,  and  she  may  be  placed 
back  in  the  cage  to  remain  perhaps  another  twenty-four  hours,  when 
the  same  process  is  repeated. 

This  is  the  general  course  taken  in  introducing  queens,  but  at  the 
present  time  queen  breeders  have  what  they  call  "introducing  cages." 
These  cages  are  so  arranged  that  candy  is  placed  in  the  entrance,  and 
the  bees  in  time,  by  eating  out  the  candy,  themselves  liberate  the 
queen,  and  chances  are  taken  as  to  her  safety.  By  introducing  an 
Italian  queen  thus  to  a  colony  of  bees,  the  whole  stock  becomes  pure 
Italian,  and  as  the  queen  never  changes  her  stock  the  bees  will  be  the 
same  as  long  as  she  lives  and  is  of  service  in  the  colony. 

DIVIDING   BEES   FOR   INCREASE. 

There  is  not  such  a  mania  for  dividing  bees  at  the  present  time  as 
in  former  years.  After  the  introduction  of  the  Italian  bees  into  this 
country,  the  demand  for  them  was  immense,  and  those  who  bred  them 
used  every  effort  to  increase  their  colonies,  and  dividing  was  princi- 
pally practiced.  Since  the  bees  have  become  numerous  and  cheaper, 
apiarists  have  turned  their  attention  to  raising  honey,  and  to  increas- 
ing more  moderately  by  the  process  of  natural  swarming. 

Natural  swarming  will  always  give  better  results  than  dividing,  but 
if  you  have  some  strong  colonies  that  do  not  swarm,  and  you  want 
more  colonies,  you  can  very  easily  divide  them,  and  do  it  successfully 
too.  You  may  divide  one  colony  into  several  parts  and  build  them  all 
up  to  good,  strong  colonies ;  but  at  the  same  time,  I  would  only  cut  it 
in  two.  This  is  done  by  simply  lifting  out  half  of  the  frames  of  comb 
containing  both  brood  and  honey,  and  placing  them  in  a  new  hive.  As 
there  is  but  one  queen,  she  will  be  in  one  or  the  other  division,  and 
if  we  have  an  extra  queen  to  introduce  to  the  queenless  half,  so  much 
the  better.  If  we  have  no  queen,  the  combs  containing  brood  of  the 
proper  age,  the  bees  will  rear  one  for  themselves.  A  little  more  than 
half  of  the  bees  should  go  with  the  new  colony,  as  many  of  the  old 
bees  will  return  to  the  parent  hive,  or  former  location,  and  the  new 
hive  thus  will  remain  rather  weak,  and  will  not  do  much  work  for 
several  days  on  this  account. 

WINTER   CARE   OF   BEES. 

Bees  should  be  in  winter  quarters,  if  chaff  hives  are  used,  long  be- 
fore cold  weather  sets  in,  and  early  in  autumn  is  the  best  time  to 
prepare  the  hives  for  winter.  When  the  cellar  is  used,  they  should 
not  be  placed  there  until  just  at  the  beginning  of  steady  winter.  When 
bees  are  thus  placed  in  good  winter  quarters  they  need  but  little  atten- 
tion during  the  same.  Bees  must  be  kept  perfectly  quiet  in  cold 
weather,  and  at  no  time  should  the  hives  be  opened  or  in  any  way 


138  ONE    YEAR    AMONG    THE    BEES. 

molested  when  the  weather  is  so  cold  they  cannot  fly.  On  a  warm  day, 
when  they  are  flying  freely,  the  hives  may  be  opened  or  any  work 
done  that  is  necessary,  but  only  when  necessary  even  on  these  occa- 
sions. Snow  will  do  no  harm  to  bees  when  drifted  about  the  hives, 
not  even  if  the  hives  were  totally  covered  with  it,  but  serves  as  a  good 
protection  in  severe  cold  weather.  Some  people  are  so  foolish  as  to 
get  out  with  shovels  and  shovel  away  the  snow,  thus  disturbing  the 
bees  and  possibly  doing  them  irreparable  damage.  A  thorough  ex- 
amination of  all  colonies  should  be  made  during  the  first  warm  spell 
of  weather  in  March,  and  if  any  need  food  or  will  soon  need  it,  take 
a  note  of  it  and  provide  the  same. 

It  has  always  been  a  question  in  my  mind  why  it  is  that  there  are 
so  many  homes  without  bees.  There  is  no  diet  more  delicious  or 
healthful  than  honey.  The  great  Giver  of  all  good  has  provided  that 
the  earth,  with  its  annual  offering  of  fruits  and  flowers,  shall  yield  us 
a  bountiful  supply  of  the  royal  nectar,  and  has  also  furnished  the  lit- 
tle harvesters  to  gather  it  in.  Only  furnish  them  a  home  and  a  store- 
house, and  they  will  without  money  and  without  price  supply  you 
with  the  most  delicious  of  all  sweets. 


DISEASES   AND   ENEMIES   OF   BEES.  139 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES  OF  BEES. 

FOUL-BROOD  (Bacillus  alvei)  is  a  germ  disease  which  may  be 
found  in  all  stages,  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  bee.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  bacilli,  very  minute  organisms,  multiply  very  rapidly,  the 
disease  spreads  incredibly  fast,  and  is  therefore  the  most-dreaded 
malady  of  the  hive. 

Its  presence  among  the  larvae  may  be  very  certainly  detected  by 
examining  a  comb  of  honey  containing  the  growing  larva?.  If  these, 
instead  of  being  plump  and  of  a  pearly  whiteness,  are  yellowish  or 
brown  or  shriveled,  foul-brood  may  be  suspected.  The  larva  soon 
dies,  and  shrivels  into  a  flattish  black  scale.  If  cells  having  sunken 
caps  are  opened  and  a  dark  brown,  stringy,  putrid  mass  is  found,  and 
if  there  is  an  odor  similar  to  the  oppressive  odor  given  off  from  some 
varieties  of  liquid  glue,  foul-brood  may  be  considered  the  cause  of  the 
unnatural  condition. 

In  larvae,  the  disease  is  very  acute,  embracing  all  parts  of  the  body, 
probably  on  account  of  the  thinness  of  the  membrane.  In  the  adult 
it  may  be  more  localized,  and  consequently  will  be  longer  in  running 
its  course.  Bees  which  are  nearly  dead  are  almost  bloodless,  while  the 
air  sacs  expand  as  the  muscles  decrease,  and  nearly  fill  the  whole  body. 
Workers,  drones  and  queens  are  liable  to  attack.  If  the  queen  is 
inflicted  with  the  disease,  she  will  transmit  it  to  the  egg.  Hence  the 
very  rapid  destruction  of  the  colonies  when  once  attacked. 

Remedial  treatment,  to  be  effective,  must  be  heroic.  Those  who 
cannot  for  a  time  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  work  of  stamping 
out  the  disease  had  far  better  destroy  the  affected  colonies.  For 
others  of  their  own  apiary  will  soon  be  infected  and  the  colonies  of 
the  neighborhood  are  endangered. 

Culling  out  infected  brood-comb,  removing  bees  to  new  hive, 
dequeening  in  order  to  get  rid  of  a  probably  diseased  queen,  adding  a 
new  queen,  then  starving  the  colony  until  some  of  the  bees  fall  from 
exhaustion,  is  a  method  frequently  effective.  Many  other  methods 
are  to  be  found  in  the  various  works  upon  apiculture.  The  Cheshire 
plan,  however,  has  proven  itself  of  great  value,  and  is  herewith  given : 

"To  place  the  food,  with  added  phenol,  on 'the  hive,  will,  however, 
do  nothing  in  the  greater  number  of  cases.  If  honey  be  coming  in, 
the  bees  will  not  touch  it ;  but  open  the  stocks,  remove  the  brood- 
combs  and  pour  the  medicated  syrup  into  those  cells  immediately 
around  and  over  the  brood,  and  the  bees  will  use  a  curative  quantity  of 
phenol.  In  my  experiments  I  inoculated  a  stock,  and  allowed  it  to 


140  DISEASES   AND   ENEMIES   OF   BEES. 

get  into  a  bad  state,  then  inserted  a  comb  of  store  in  the  center  of  the 
brood-nest,  and  treated  one  side,  from  which  the  disease  disappeared, 
but  raged,  although  with  abated  fury,  in  the  other  half.  Having,  by 
these  and  many  similar  experiments,  made  the  curability  of  Bacillus 
al.vei  a  certitude,  and  having  ascertained  that  TJ-ff  of  phenol  could  be 
given  to  the  bees  without  limiting  the  queen  in  breeding,  or  touching 
her  health,  while  ^J0  dispatched  the  bacillus  quickly  when  the  honey 
was  coming  in,  and  T^  when  it  was  not,  I,  in  the  interest  of  apicul- 
ture, requested  the  British  Bee-keepers'  Association  to  provide  me 
with  a  bad  case,  fully  attested. 

"It  arrived  late,  June  21, 1884,  with  seven  combs,  about  half  a  pint 
of  bees,  and  a  queen  cell  which  I  saw  at  once  contained  a  dead  larva 
only.  Amidst  crowds  of  bad  cells,  scarcely  any  living  brood  was  visi- 
ble. A  casual  counting  of  one  of  the  best  frames  gave  371  dead  larvae 
on  one  side.  The  odor  was  pronounced.  The  case  needed  confidence  ; 
it  was  bad  indeed.  With  me,  queenlessness  presents  the  worst  of  all 
obstacles.  No  grubs,  no  physic,  no  cure  !  I  had  stipulated  that  the 
stock  should  have  a  queen,  and  so  the  difficulty  was  greater  than  I 
had  anticipated.  Early  next  morning,  seeing  the  utterly  disheartened 
condition  of  the  poor  bees,  I  went  to  a  nucleus,  took  out  a  very  fine 
Italian  mother,  just  proved  as  purely  fecundated,  and  putting  her 
under  a  dome  cage  on  a  card,  placed  the  card  over  the  frames.  The 
bees  came  up  and  seemed  to  see  in  her  a  new  hope.  The  cage  was 
lifted  and  she  was  welcomed  immediately.  I  waited  three  days,  till 
she  was  regularly  laying,  giving  syrup  phenolated  1  in  500  ;  and 
now,  since  I  could  not  create  bees,  added  two  combs  of  brood.  This 
step  was  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  I  required  a  strong  hive  by 
the  time  of  the  congress.  The  bees  were  now  shut  up  by  a  division 
boa'd  ;  but  the  combs  put  behind  it,  waiting  introduction  as  the  bees 
multiplied,  smelt  so  badly  —  the  weather  being  hot  — that  I  several 
times  sprayed  them  with  water  200,  phenol  1.  Now,  I  should  com- 
press the  bees  as  much  as  possible,  and  spray  the  removed  combs 
freely  with  water  50,  phenol  1. 

"Every  evening  the  medicated  syrup  was  given,  by  pouring  around 
the  brood-nest ;  but  only  so  much  as  would  be  likely  to  be  used,  the  ob- 
ject not  being  to  fill  the  cells,  but  to  get  the  food  converted  into  bees. 
The  smell  vanished ;  the  bees  became  active  and  earnest.  The  comb 
with  371  dead  larvae  on  one  side  was  last  added,  and  in  six  days  I 
could  only  find  five  sunken  caps  in  the  whole  of  it.  Now  and  again 
a  grub  took  disease,  but  quickly  perfect  immunity  was  the  issue.  No 
cell  was  uncapped,  110  diseased  grub  removed,  nor  hive  touched,  except 
as  described.  The  bees  cleaned  their  floor  and  their  combs ;  while,  in 
four  weeks  and  two  or  three  days,  every  frame  became  filled  with 


DISEASES   AND   ENEMIES   OF   BEES.  141 

brood  in  the  brightest  and  best  possible  condition.  Since  this,  worse 
cases  have  succumbed  in  the  same  fashion.  Abundant  corroboration 
has  been  given  from  those  who  have  tried  my  method,  and  have  suc- 
ceeded, to  their  own  delight,  while  some  failed ;  but  the  testimony  is 
general,  that  bees  under  phenol  become  more  energetic  than  those 
that  need  no  treatment. 

''The  quantities  are  easily  managed :  One  ounce  of  phenol  crystals 
(carbolic  acid  No.  1 )  will  be  sufficient  for  forty  pounds  of  syrup,  one- 
fourth  ounce  for  ten  pounds,  or  one-fourth  ounce  of  liquid  carbolic 
P.  B.,  for  nine  pounds  of  syrup,  or  rather  less  than  three  quarts.  The 
carbolic  acid  should  ba  added  to  the  syrup  when  the  latter  is  cool, 
and  mixed  equally  by  careful  stirring." 

THE  WAX-MOTH  (Galleria  mellonella  Linn.)  is  an  unwelcome 
guest  among  the  bees  and  rarely  gains  admission  to  a  strong  colony. 
The  weak  colonies  are  chosen  places  for  the  deposition  of  its  eggs. 
One  of  the  highly  commendable  features  of  the  Italian  bee  is  that  it 
ever  and  always  repels  the  encroachments  of  this  moth.  This  moth 
deposits  its  eggs  in  the  comb,  on  propolis,  or  sometimes  without  the 
hive  and  the  young  worms  are  left  to  run  the  gauntlet  at  the  entrance. 
The  intelligent  bee-keeper  will  keep  his  colonies  strong,  will  permit 
no  superfluous  comb  to  remain  in  the  hive,  and  none  to  lie  carelessly 
exposed  around  the  apiary  for  the  reception  of  eggs.  His  trained  eye 
will  be  ever  on  the  alert  for  evidences  of  the  presence  of  the  moth  in 
and  about  the  hives.  His  constant  care  and  supervision  of  his  bees, 
together  with  their  strength  and  activity,  make  the  moth  of  little  con- 
sequence in  the  well-kept  apiary. 

Ants,  wasps,  spiders,  toads,  lizards  and  mice  prey  upon  the 
workers;  the  amount  of  loss  is  never  great.  The  home  of  the  of- 
fenders can  generally  be  located  near  by  and  the  occupants  routed. 
Birds  are  not  so  destructive  as  was  formerly  supposed. 


142  HONEY-  AND  POLLEN-PRODUCING  PLANTS. 


PRINCIPAL  HONEY-  AND  POLLEN-PRODUCING  PLANTS  OF 

KANSAS. 

*  Willows,  (Salix).     March -May. 

Red  or  Soft  Maple,  (Acer  rubrum).     March-April. 

Redbud,  (Cercis  canadensis) .     March -April. 

Elm ,  (  Ulmus ) .     March  -  April . 

Alder,  (Alnus  rugosa).    March -April. 

Dog-tooth  Violet,  (Erythronium  albidum).     March-April. 

*  Apricot,  (Prunus  armeniaca).     April-May. 
Juneberry,  (Amelanchier  canadensis).     April-May. 

*  CRIMSON  CLOVER,  (Trifolium  incarnatum).    April-May. 
Dandelion,  (Taraxacum  officinale).     April-May. 
Gooseberry  and  Currant,  (Ribes).     April-May. 

Pear  and  Apple,  (Pyrus).     April-May. 
Wild  Crab-apple,  (Pyrus).     April-May. 
Peach,  Cherry,  and  Plum,  (Prunus).     April-May. 
Rhododendron,  (Rhododendron).     April-May. 
Pines,  (Pinus).     April -May. 

*TULIP-TREE,  (Liriodendron  tulipifera).    May. 
American  Holly,  (Ilex  opaca).     May. 

COMMON,  BLACK  or  YELLOW  LOCUST,  (Robinia  pseudacacia) .    May 
Black  Gum,  Sour  Gum,  Tupelo,  or  Pepper idge,  (Nyssa  aquatica) 

May. 

RASPBERRY,  (Rubus).     May- June. 
Persimmon,  (Diospyros  virginiana).     May -June. 
Grape-vines,  (  Vitis).     May -June. 
Alsike  Clover,  (Trifolium  hybridum).     May -June. 
White  Clover,  (Trifolium  repens.)     May- June. 
Strawberry,  (Frag aria).     May. 
COW-PEA,  (  Vigna  sinensis).     May- August. 
LINDEN,  or  "  LINN,"  (  Tilia  americana).     June. 
Catalpas,  or  Indian  Bean  Trees,  (Catalpa).     June. 
Chinquapin,  (Castanea  pumila).     June. 

*The  relative  importance  of  the  plants  as  honey  and  pollen  producers  is  shown 
by  the  type  used.  Of  least  importance  are  those  in  plain  body  type ;  the  itali- 
cized next,  and  the  capitals,  in  accordance  with  size. 


HONEY-    AND   POLLEN-PRODUCING    PLANTS.  143 

MAGNOLIA,  or  SWEET  BAY,  (Magnolia  glauca} .     June. 

Oxeye  Daisy,  or  Whiteweed,  (Chrysanthemum  leucanthemum} . 
June -July. 

SOUR  WOOD,  or  SORREL  Tree,  (  Oxydendron  arboreum}.  June- 
July. 

Milkweeds,  (Asclepias}.     June -July. 

ALFALFA,  (Medicago  sativa}.    June -September. 

Teucrium  canadense,  (American  Germander,  Wood  Sage}.    July. 

Cucumber,  Melon,  Squash,  Pumpkin,  ( Cucumis,  Citrullus,  and 
Cucurbita).  July -August. 

Indian  Corn,  (Zea  mays}.     July -August. 

MELILOT  or  SWEET  CLOVER,  (Melilotus  alba}.  July-Au- 
gust. 

Knotweeds,  (Polygonum,  especially  P.  pennsylvanicum  and  P. 
persicaria}.  July -September. 

Monarda  fistulosa,  (  Wild  Bergamot}.     July -September. 

Buckwheat,  (Fagopyrumfagopyrum}.    August- September. 

Goldenrods,  (Solidago}.     August-October. 

Bur- marigolds,  (Bidens,  especially  Spanish  Needles,  Bidens  bi- 
pinnata}.  August -October. 

Thoroughwort,  or  Boneset,  (Eupatorium  perfoliatum}.  August- 
October. 

Wild  Aster,  (Aster}.    August- October. 

Cleomella  augustifolia.     August, 


144  BEE  BOOKS  AND  JOURNALS. 


BOOKS  AND  JOURNALS  RELATING  TO  APICULTURE. 

BOOKS. 

Langstroth  on  the  Honey-Bee.  Revised  edition,  1889.    By  Chas.  Dadant  &  Son. 

Quinby's  New  Bee-Keeping;  or  The  Mysteries  of  Bee-Keeping  Explained. 
1884.  By  L.  C.  Root. 

The  A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture:  a  Cyclopedia  of  Everything  Pertaining  to  the 
Care  of  the  Honey-Bee.  By  A.  I.  Root. 

The  Honey-Bee:  a  Manual  of  Instruction  in  Apiculture.  By  Frank  Benton. 
Published  by  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology. 

Advanced  Bee-Culture ;  its  Methods  and  Management.  By  W.  Z.  Hutch- 
inson. 

Bees  and  Bee-Keeping,  Scientific  and  Practical.  By  Frank  R.  Cheshire.  In 
two  volumes:  Vol.  i,  scientific;  vol.  u,  practical.  Published  by  L.  Upcott  Gill, 
London,  England. 

The  Bee-Keeper's  Guide ;  or  Manual  of  the  Apiary.     By  A.  J.  Cook. 

A  Modern  Bee  Farm  and  its  Economic  Management.  By  S.  Simmins.  Pub- 
lished in  London,  England. 

The  Blessed  Bees.     By  John  Allen. 

Bee-Keeping  for  Profit.     By  Dr.  G.  L.  Tinker. 

JOURNALS. 

The  American  Bee  Journal.     Weekly.     Chicago,  111. 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture.     Semimonthly.     Medina,  Ohio. 
The  Modern  Farmer  and  Busy  Bee.     Semimonthly.     St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
The  Bee-Keepers'  Review.     Monthly.     Flint,  Mich. 
The  Nebraska  Bee-Keeper.     Monthly.     York,  Neb. 
The  American  Bee-Keeper.     Monthly.     Falconer,  N.  Y. 
The  Progressive  Bee-Keeper.     Monthly.     Higginsville,  Mo. 
The  Southland  Queen.     Monthly.     Beeville,  Texas. 
Kansas  Farmer,  apiary  department.     Weekly.     Topeka,  Kan. 
The  Western  Bee-Keeper.     Monthly.     Denver,  Colo. 


INDEX. 


A.  PAGE. 

Acridinae 10 

Acridium  diff erentiale 63 

Alfalfa  Irrigation  and  Land  Company 11 ,  51 ,    53 

culture  with  reference  to  prevention  of  grasshoppers 51-    53 

as  a  honey  plant 84 

seed  crop,  influence  of  bees  on 82 

yields  of  first  and  second  crop  on  disked  land 53 

Ames,E.E -. 18 

Anabrus  sp 30 

Analyses  of  various  kinds  of  honey 79 

Anatomy  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 39-    48 

"        external 39-    44 

' '         internal 44-    48 

Anderson,  Mrs.  C.  E 88 

Ants 141 

Apiculture,  books  and  journals  relating  to 144 

Apismellifica '. 68 

Appliances  for  honey  production 109-111 

Artificial  queen  rearing 122 

Asilid  fly 37 

Atchison  county 91 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  railway 1 

Aughey,  Samuel 30 

B. 

BaciUusalvei 139-141 

Balch,  J.  C 91 

Ball,  H.  E 51 

BaU&Goddard 1,  51,  59 

Barton  county 93 

Beal,  F.  L.  M 30 

Bee  products 74 

bee-bread 74 

bee-glue 74 

honey T  5 

royal  jelly 74 

silk 75 

wax 75 

Bee  veil 106 

"    smoker 106 

Bees,  diseases  of 139,  140 

"    dividing  for  increase '. 137 

"    enemies  of 141 

"    handling - 129,  130 

1 '    queenless,  actions  of • 136 

' '    ready  for  shipment,  colony  of 135 

' '     winter  care  of 137 

' '    year  with,  a 102-138 

Beetles,  predaceous 81 

Bennett,  C.  A.  T>... 94 

Bibliography  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 62 

Birds,  preying  on  bees 1*1 

(145) 


146  INDEX. 

Blacksnake,  grasshoppers  food  of 30 

Bellinger,  P.  H 97 

Books  relating  to  apiculture 144 

Bottom,  Wm.  M 98- 

Bourbon  county 91 

Brachystola  magna 15 

Brauer,  F 3ft 

British  Bee-keepers'  Association 140 

Brooks,  J.  G 89 

Brown  county 92,  97 

Bruner,  Lawrence 9 ,  39 

Brunswig,  A.  J 18 

Butler  county 94 

Butts,  M.  A 92 

c. 

Caloptenus  differential^ 62 

Calvert,  G.  L 16,  49- 

Campbell  soil  culture 49 

Can.  Ent.,  Vol.  XXIV 33 

Capital,  Topeka 7 

Carbolic  acid,  remedy  for  foul-brood 140,  141 

Carolina  locust 10,  17,  19 

Carniolan  bees 69,  72 

' '  characteristics  of 69 

Gary,  Mrs.  L.  A 89* 

Case,  Judge 18 

Cat-bird „. 30 

Cellar  wintering  of  bees 133,  134 

Chaff  hives 134,  135 

Cheshire.F.R 72,  74,  76,  77,  139 

Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  railway 1 

Chinch-bug 5 

Cimbex  americana 34 

Circulatory  system  of  Differential  Locust 45 

Close  of  the  honey  season 131,  1133 

Cloud  county 98 

Coal-oil,  its  use  in  killing  locusts 57 

Coburn,F.D 11,  85 

Coccyzus  americanus 30 

Coffey  county 97 

Colony  of  bees  ready  for  shipment 135 

"  social  economy  of 72,  102 

Colorado  State  Bee-keepers'  Association 99 

Comb,  building 79 

"  foundation,  frames  of 124,  125 

Combs,  reversing 131 

Conry,  T.J 66,  94 

Coquillett,  D.  W 38 

Corn-root  worm 5 

Cowley  county 98 

Cress,  P.  C 91 

Crocker,  J.  F 95 

Crow  blackbird 30 

Cyprian  bees 69,  72 

characteristics  of 71 

Cyrtacanthacris  differentialis 63 

D. 

Daniels,  A.  L 98 

Darwin  on  self-fertilization  of  flowers 83 

Davison,  E 97 

Decatur  county 18 


INDEX.  147 

Differential  (or  yellow)  Locust ', 31,  32,  39,  60 

Life-history  of 20-  28 

embryology 20,  21 

manner  of  oviposition 21-  23 

number  of  eggs  in  pod  of 23 

where  eggs  are  laid 23-  25 

description  of  egg- pod 25 

last  molt 25-  27 

habits 28 

length  of  flight 29 

habitat 29 

Natural  enemies 29 

vertebrate 29,  30 

birds 29,  30 

cats 30 

blacksnakes 30 

invertebrate 31-  33 

locust  mite 31 

beetles,  predaceous 31 

flies,  parasitic 31-  37 

' '     robber 37 

locust  fungus 15,  37,  38 

Methods  of  prevention 51-  55 

Methods  of  destruction 55-  60 

Digestive  system  of  Melanoplus  differentialis , 44 

' '       of  honey-bee 76 

Diptera,  parasitic 31-  37 

Disking  alfalfa,  remedy  for  grasshoppers 51-53,  61 

' '       cause  of  increase  in  yield 52 

Diseases  of  bees 139,  140 

Diseases  of  grasshoppers 15,  37,  38 

Dissosteira  Carolina 10,  17,  .19 

longipennis 17,  23 

Dividing  bees  for  increase 137 

Douglas,  Robert 92 

Drone  bee,  position  in  social  economy  of  the  hive 72 

cells 80 

Duff,  A.  H 67,  73,  102-138 

Dyer,  A.  C 11 

E. 

Edwards  county 5,  6,  11,  12,  18,  19,  23,  28,  38,  51,  53,  59,    90 

Edwards,  R.  E 11 

Eggs  of  Differential  Locust,  number  in  pod  23 

Egyptian  bees 69 

Emery,  J.  P 97 

Empusagrilli 14,  15,  37 

Enemies  of  bees 141 

Erax  cinerascens 37 

Extractor,  the  honey 116,  117 

Extracting  honey,  methods  of 118 

F. 

Feeding  bees,  methods  of 125 ,  126 

Fehling  method  in  honey  analysis 79 

Fertilization  of  the  alfalfa  blossom 81 

method  of 82 

Finney  county 5,  13,  94,  95,  97,  98 

Food  for  bees 105,  133 

Formic  acid 75,  80 

Ford.Thos.H 1,  14,  55,  57,  59 

Ford  county 5,  13,  51,  52,  53,  55 

Foul-brood  ( Bacillus  alvei) 139-141 

Foundation  fastener,  the  Parker Ill 

Foundation  comb,  its  advantages 112 


148  INDEX. 

Frames  of  comb  foundation 124-125- 

Franklin,  E.  C 67,  77,  79- 

Frazer,  D.  J 93 

Fulton,  W.  D 56,  94 

G. 

Galeoscoptes  carolinensis 3'J 

Galleria  mellonella 141 

German  bee 68- 

"         "  characteristics 69 

Girard,  M.  B 89 

Goodland  Republican 16 

Gray  county 97 

Great  crested  fly-catcher 30 

Greeley  county 6,-  15,  30 

H. 

Hambleton,  C.  S 13 

Hamilton  county 5,  6,  14,  15,  28,  37,  57,  59,  98- 

Hawn,  Laurens : 95 

Handling  bees 129,  130 

Hetzel,  Mrs.  M.  D 90 

Hildebrand  on  self  fertilization  of  flowers 82 

Hill.H.  M 89 

Hive  yields 99 

Hives,  construction 109-110 

4 '       putting  together 122 

the  complete 114-116 

Hiving  swarms 119 ,  120 

Hoffman,  Joseph 98 

Hoff meister,  Ed 92 

Holsinger,  Frank 30 

Honey  season 107 

"      closeof 131-133 

' '      extractor 116,  117 

"      methods  of  extracting 118,  119- 

chemical  analysis 79 

' '      alfalfa  and  melon  bloom 77 

"      alfalfa 77,  79< 

"      basswood 77,  79 

"      knotweed 77,  79 

' '      sweet  clover 77 ,  79- 

"      white  clover 77,  79 

11      cells 79- 

"      producing  plants  of  Kansas,  principal 142,  143 

Hopper-dozer,  use  of 12,  60 

1 '          "      less  efficient  on  cloudy  days 28 

"       ;  ' '      ability  to  capture  full-fledged  differential  locusts 29* 

"         "      article  on  construction,  uses,  success  attending  experiments 55-    60 

Hough,  Garry  de  N 11,  32,  33,  34 

House  apiaries 126,  128- 

Huber,  Francois 74 

Hughes,  J.  F 88 

Humphrey,  C.  H 1 ,  1* 

Hunter,  W.  D 11 

Hymenoptera,  parasitic 3& 

I. 

Introducing  queens 1361 

Italian  bees 69,  72 

J. 

Jefferson  county 92 

Jefferson,  Thomas 6* 

Jewell  county 91 


INDEX.  149 

Jones,  D.  B ; 91 

Jones,  W.  D 92 

Journals  relating  to  apiculture 144 

Judd,  S.  D 30 

K. 

Kansas  City  Star • 6 

Kansas  Farmer 67,  144 

Kansas  state  board  of  agriculture 85 

Kansas,  seventh  in  list  of  states  visited  by  Rocky  Mountain  Locust 9 

Kansas  University  Quarterly 37 

Katydid 30 

L. 

La  Bar,  John  W 97 

Langstroth,  L.  L 81 

Law  concerning  destruction  of  grasshoppers 61 ,  62 

Leavenworth  county 95 

Lesser  Migratory  Locust— see  Melanoplus  atlanis. 

Linn  county 89,  97 

Lizards  preying  on  bees 37 

Logan  county 16 

Long,  D.  A 17,  18,  49 

Longed-winged  Locust— see  Dissostiera  longipennis. 

Loy,  General  Foreman 17 

Lubber  grasshopper— sen  Brachystola  magna. 

Lyon  county 88,  98 

M. 

Maclellan,  Engineer 17 

Marion  county 93,  94 

McAllaster,  B.  A 48,  49 

McClung,  C.  E 20 

McGrew,  S.  B 97 

McGugin,  H.  H 91 

McPherson  county t 88,  91 

Means  of  preventing  undue  increase  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 51-  53 

Means  of  destruction  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 55-  60 

Measure  of  prevention  against  grasshoppers 48 

Melanerpes  ery throcephalus 30 

Melanoplus  atlanis 11,  19,  38 

bivitattus 11,  13,  19,  27 

differentialis 11,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  19,  23,  25,  27,  32,  33,  3t,  39,  63 

"           bibliography  of 62 

egg,  description  of 20,  21 

"           egg-pods,  number  of  in  pod 23 

wherelaid 21,  23 

"                  "         how  destroyed 51,  53 

life-history,  anatomy,  and  habits  —  see  Differential  Locust. 

technical  description 63 

femur-rubrum 19,  38 

packardi 19 

spretus 9,  11,  19,  38 

Meridian,  100th 6 

Methods  of  feeding  bees 105 

Miami  county 89 

Mice  disturbing  the  hives 141 

Miller,  Wm 65,  88 

Miller,  F.  H 93 

Missouri  Pacific  railway 1 

Mitchell  county 89,  91 

Momyer,  C.  J 1 15,  49 

Muller,  Herman • 81,  85 

Myiarchus  crinitus • 30 


150  INDEX. 

N. 

National  Bee-keepers'  Association 77,  81 

Neosho  county 97 

Nervous  system  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 47 

Newell,  J.  C 18 

Noe,  D.  P 97 

Norton  county 18 ,  92 ,  96 

O. 

(Edipodinae 10 

Observations  by  apiarists 88,  98 

Olston,  Oley 97 

Opening  hives  and  handling  the  bees 129,  130 

Osage  county 92 

Qsborn,  H 11 

Ottawa  county 92 

P. 

Packard,  A.  S 9 

Packages,  best  for  retailing  honey 119 

Palestine  bees 69 

Paris  green,  use  of,  against  locusts 60 

Parker  comb  foundation  fastener Ill 

Pezotettix  differentialis 63 

Phenol,  remedy  for  foul-brood 140,  141 

Phillips  county , 89,  92,    98 

Plants,  honey  and  pollen  producing,  of  Kansas 142 ,  143 

Pollination  of  alfalfa  blossom  by  bee 81 

Prairie-chickens,  grasshoppers  as  food  of 30 

Proceedings  of  National  Museum,  vol.  xx 63 

Propolis 74 

as  receptacle  for  bee-moth's  eggs 141 

Q. 

Quails,  grasshoppers  as  food  of 31 

Queen  bee,  development  and  position  in  economy  of  hive 72 

"     rearing 72,  122 

"    with  bad  wings 121 

"        "     introducing  into  hive 136 

'    age  to  remove 132 

Queen-cells 80,  122,  123 

Queenless  bees,  actions  of 132 

Queen  rearing,  artificial 122,  123 

difficulties,  out  of  season 124 

Quiscalus  versicolor 30 

R. 

Bauchfuss,  Frank 99,  ICO 

Record  of  colony  feeding  almost  exclusively  on  alfalfa 100,  101 

Red-eyed  vireo 30 

Red-headed  woodpecker 30 

Red-legged  Locust  — see  Melanoplus  femur-rubum. 

Red  locust  mite 31,  33,  34 

Report  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1885 38 

United  States  Entomological  Commission,  First 38 

Entomologist  to  Nebraska  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1896 39 

Reproductive  system  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 47 

Respiratory  system  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 46 

Reversing  the  comb 131 

Riley.C.V 9,  29,  31,  38 

Rock  Island  railway 1,  17 

Rocky  Mountain  Ldcust— see  Melanoplus  spretus. 

Rooks  county 89 

Royal  jelly 74 


INDEX.  151 

S. 

Saline  county 88 

Sarcophaga  cimbicis 12,    33 

Sarcophaga  hunteri 33,  34,    37 

Sarcophagidee 32,    33 

Sarcophagae 36 

Scudder,  S.  H 29,    63 

Section-holder  super 113,  114 

Section  boxes 114 

Sherman  county 16,     18 

Shipping  crates  for  honey 114 ,  115 

Silsby ,  John  H 7 

Simmons,  T.  W 17 

Smart.J.H 12,  13,  15,  51,  52,  53,    59 

Smith,  R.W 92 

Snodgrass,  R.  L 94 

Snow,  F.  H 1,  5,  11,    30 

Snowy  tree-cricket 30 

Spraying  with  Paris  green 60 

Spring  management  of  bees 103 

Spiders 14 

Statutes  of  Kansas 61 

Steere,  Solon 91 

Stevens,  W.  C xi 

Stein,  Herr  Paul 36 

Stilson,  L.  D 77 

Stimulative  feeding  of  bees 105 

Sting  of  the  bee 80 

4 '     structure  and  use 80 

' '     remedies 81 

Straining  honey 119 

Super  for  holding  sections 112 

Sutton,  J.  W 98 

Summary,  relations  existing  between  alfalfa  and  grasshoppers,  and  methods  of  prevention 

of  loss  from  grasshoppers 60,    61 

Swarming  of  bees 108,  120 

' '         how  prevented 108 

Swarms,  how  hived 119 

Swayze,  J.  C 67,  77,    79 

Swink,  G.  D 77 

Swoyer,  Jacob 92 

Syrian  bees 69 

T. 

Table  showing  influence  of  bees  on  alfalfa  seed 84 

"           "         chemical  analysis  of  honey 79 

"           "         alfalfa  acreage,  stands  of  bees,  pounds  of  honey 86,  87 

Tachinidse 32,  37 

Teaford,  Samuel 96 

Technical  description  of  Melanoplus  differentialis 63,  64 

Tephromyia  34,  36 

affinis 36,  37 

grisea 36,  37 

"           hunteri 36,  37 

lineata 36,  37 

obsoleta 36,  37 

Thayer,  Albert  F 7 

Thomas,  C 29 

Thomas  county 16 

Toads 1« 

Townsend,  C.  H.  T 31,  33,  34 

Trombidium  locustarum 31 

Try  xaliuee 10 


152  INDEX. 

"T  super,"  the 112 

Two-striped  Locust— see  Melanoplus  bivitattis. 

Tunisian  beos 69 

u. 

Union  Pacific  railway 1,  16,  49 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 71 

"             Bulletin  No.  9 30 

V. 

Vireo  olivaceus 30 

Vivarium,  observations  on  locusts  in 23 

W. 

Walker,  Wm 16 ,  49 

Wallace  county 6,  16 

Wasps 141 

Watson,  Supt.G.W 1,  11,  53 

Wax 75,  117 

"   moth,  the 141 

Weber,  Wm 23,  59 

Weir,  John 94 

Western  cricket 30 

4 '       Fruit  Grower 30 

Whitford,  L.  M 77 

Whitcomb,  E : 77 

White  Woman  creek 15 

Williston,  S.  W 1,  32,  34,  37 

Wilson  county 92 

Wing,  J.  H 66,  77,  98 

Winter  care  of  bees 137 

Wintering,  cellar 133,  134 

"          outdoor 134 

Worker  bee,  function  and  position  in  the  social  economy  of  the  hive 72 

cells 80 

Y. 

Year  among  the  bees,  One 102 

Yellow-billed  cuckoo 30 

Yellow  grasshopper 31,  60 

Yields  of  first  and  second  crop  of  alfalfa  on  disked  land 53 

Young,  D.F 98 

Yoxall,  George 89 


CORRIGENDA. 

The  foot-note  bearing  a  t  on  page  11  should  appear  as  a  foot-note  on  page  12, 
and  should  refer  to  Sarcophaga  sp.,  in  line  7. 

The  line  at  the  bottom  of  page  15  should  be  removed,  and  should  appear  as 
the  third  line  from  the  bottom  of  page  16. 

Under  figure  14,  page  41,  end  of  second  line,  "menl"  should  be  men-,  and  at 
end  of  third  line  "labia-"  should  be  labial. 

After  each  of  the  figures  in  Part  II,  from  figure  8  to  29,  inclusive,  should  ap- 
pear the  word  "  (Original.)" 


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